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UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



THE NORMAL COURSE IN ENGLISH 



BASED UPON THE POPULAR WORKS OF 



PKOFESSOB ALFRED H. WELSH 



THE NORMAL COURSE IN ENGLISH. 

BASED UPON THE POPULAR WORKS OF 

PROFESSOR ALFRED H. WELSH. 



PREPARATORY LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. 

By Mary I. Lovejoy, Principal of Broadway School, 

Chelsea, Mass. 



THE ELEMENTS OF LANGUAGE AND 
GRAMMAR. 

Edited by J. M. Greenwood, A.M., Superintendent 
of Schools, Kansas City, Mo. 



STUDIES IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Edited by J. M. Greenwood, A.M., Superintendent 

of Schools, Kansas City, Mo. 

£i * 



TTbe monnal Course in jenolteb 



THE ELEMENTS 



LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR, 



& Practical Course 

FOR USE IN INTERMEDIATE, UNGRADED, 
AND GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 



Based Upon Welsh's "First Lessons in English." 



EDITED BY 

J. M. GREENWOOD, A.M. 

Superintendent or Schools, Kansas City, Mo. 








SILVER, BURDETT & CO., PUBLISHERS 

New York . . . BOSTON . . . Chicago 

1893 






r 

1^3 



wn. 



Copyright, 1892, 1893, 
By SILVER, BURDETT & CO, 



Norfoooto $ress : 

J. S. Cushing & Co. — Berwick & Smith. 

Boston, Mass., U.S.A. 



PREFACE. 



In the preparation of this book, which is based upon 
Welsh's First Lessons in English, the aim has been to make 
a text-book well adapted to use in all intermediate and 
lower grammar grades of city, town, and village schools, 
and for the ungraded country schools. 

It is pre-eminently a book to develop the thinking powers 
of the learner. The general plan of the work is to enable 
the pupil to gain a mastery of the language through its use. 

Facts are adduced and amply illustrated before principles 
are stated ; ideas are developed before the terms are given. 
The child is made to perceive before he is asked to remem- 
ber, and to reason before he is required to generalize. 

Starting with a thought as the unit of expression, the 
pupil is made familiar with the form and structure of the 
sentence, its subject, and its predicate ; with oral and pic- 
torial analysis ; with the offices of the noun, the pronoun, 
the adjective, the verb, the adverb, the preposition, the 
conjunction, the interjection; with the subdivisions of the 
parts of speech ; with the processes of inflection ; with 
the laws of construction; with capitalization and punctu- 
ation ; and, finally, with the art of letter-writing and compo- 
sition. One topic only is presented at a time. The learner 

5 



6 PREFACE. 

is taught to think and to depend upon his own judgment at 
every step. The illustrations will help to correct any errors 
in judgment, should they occur. 

Definitions are introduced when they are needed. Their 
mastery is a substantial acquisition, whose importance can 
hardly be overestimated when accuracy is desired. 

The book in its present form is a live book, for live 
teachers, and to be used in live schools. 

J. M. G. 

Kansas City, Mo., 
July, 1892. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER I. PAGE 

The Sentence . . 9 

CHAPTER II. 
Analysis and Diagramming . . 21 

CHAPTER III. 
Classes of Words 28 

CHAPTER IV. 
Words Variously Used 48 

CHAPTER V. 
Equivalents 51 

CHAPTER VI. 

Classes of Nouns 60 

CHAPTER VII. 
Modifications of Nouns 65 

CHAPTER VIII. 
Classes of Pronouns 77 

CHAPTER IX. 
Modifications of Pronouns 91 

CHAPTER X. 

Classes of Adjectives . . . , . <> , 97 

7 



8 TABLE OF CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER XL PA6E 

Modification of Adjectives 105- 

CHAPTER XII. 
Classes of Verbs 110 

CHAPTER XIII. 
Modifications of Verbs 120 

CHAPTER XIV. 
Classes of Adverbs 146 

CHAPTER XV. 
Modification of Adverbs 151 

CHAPTER XVI. 
Classes of Prepositions 157 

CHAPTER XVII. 
Classes of Conjunctions 161 

CHAPTER XVIII. 
Elements of Sentences .165 

CHAPTER XIX. 
How to Use the Parts of Speech 181 

CHAPTER XX. 
Capital Letters and Punctuation 195 

CHAPTER XXL 

Letter-Writing . . . . . . . . . 206 



THE ELEMENTS 



LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

CHAPTER I. 
The Sentence. 

Nests, birds, in the garret, Margie and Oril, Christmas, 
children, gives, Santa Claus, presents, are words. As 
they are put here they merely name things, but say 
nothing. To make them tell something, it is necessary 
to add what is done by the birds or persons named, and 
to join the words together in a certain way. Thus : — 

Birds build nests. 

Margie and Oril are playing in the garret. 

Santa Claus gives children Christmas presents. 

Say something about bees. (Bees make honey.') 

Say something about rain. 

Ask something about flowers. 

Ask something about a horse. 

Ask something about a drum. 

Say something about red squirrels. 

Say something about Charley's chickens. 

This mark ( — ) is called a dash. A dash is sometimes 
used to show that a word or words are left out. The 



10 LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

space from which the words are omitted is called a 
blank. 

Fill the following blanks so as to tell something. 
Write the sentences on your slates. 

1. The fire . 

2. is pretty. 

3. is taller than . 

4. is the capital of . 

Use the following words in telling something : — 

fly sleep ran laugh 

cry burns runs laughed 

shine took twinkle will laugh 

Use is, was, or has in telling your thoughts about — 
Tom, a cow, the hen, the house, baby. 

Use are, were, or have in saying something about — 
Shoes, trees, flies, two girls, the eggs, my mittens. 

Fill the following blanks with words suitable for say- 
ing something : — 

1. The is growing. 8. The are growing. 

2. has been sick. 9. I saw in that tree. 

3. — — were whispering. 10. at recess. 

4. have been busy. 11. Plants need . 

5. He absent. 12. They by the window. 

6. The boy a tune. 13. The books . 

7. Girls rope. 14. Frank to school. 

Which of the following groups of words say some- 
thing, and which do not ? 

1. Birds and fishes. 7. My sled is green. • 

2. Are in bloom. 8. It is made of stone. 

3. He came late. ' 9. The apples sweet. 

4. Elephant with his trunk. 10. Melting snow.. 

5. The clock ticks, v 11. The house is on fire. 

6. Girls in the room. 12. Screaming child. 



THE SENTENCE. 11 

13. The child is screaming. ^ 18. The man driving the pigs. 

14. Colors the has seven rainbow. 19. He went to the city. ' 

15. Birds are chirping. 20. The day is rainy, w 

16. Hay on the wagon. 21. A rainy day. 

17. The oxen are yoked together. y 22. Fire burns. * 

A group of words that says or tells something is 
called a sentence. Hence : — 

A sentence is a thought expressed in words. 
Write — 

1. A sentence about a person. 

2. Two sentences in which you use the word is. 

3. Two sentences in which you use the word are. 

4. Two sentences in which you use the w T ord has. 

5. Two sentences in which you use the word have. 

6. Two sentences in which you use the word was. 

7. Two sentences in which you use the word were. 

The words is, are, has, have, was, and were are printed 
in italics. Italics are used in printing to show that a 
word is meant to be regarded either merely as a word, 
or as strong, striking. Thus : — 

Him is a pronoun. 
The day is very cold. 

In writing, a line should be drawn under the word to 
be italicized. Thus : — 

ef/l& 1/0/ O/ {yiOA>-&, QAi^&&C Cfi; 

is equal to — 

She is a brave, sweet girl. 



KINDS OF SENTENCES. 

Nellie whispers. Whisper, Nellie. 

Does Nellie whisper ? How Nellie whispers ! 

Here Ave have four sentences, each with its own form 



12 LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

and meaning. The first tells a fact, the second asks a 
question, the third expresses a command, and the fourth 
expresses sudden or strong feeling. 

Now, tells means the same as states or declares. To 
ask is to interrogate. To utter a command is to be im- 
perative. To express sudden or strong feeling is to 
exclaim. 

Hence the first sentence is said to be declarative ; the 
second, interrogative ; the third, imperative ; and the 
fourth, exclamatory. Therefore : — 

A declarative sentence is a sentence that tells, states s 
or declares. 

An interrogative sentence is a sentence that asks. 

An imperative sentence is a sentence that expresses 
a command or entreaty. 

An exclamatory sentence is a sentence that expresses 
some sudden emotion or feeling. 

What kind of a sentence is each of the following, and 

why? 

1. My father has gone to Europe. 

2. Shut the door. 

3. Who goes there ? 

4. Where, little Margie, do you go to school? 

5. Oril, stay here, and study. 

6. Night is very beautiful in the desert. 

7. How beautiful is night in the desert ! 

8. Run, boy. 

9. What a pretty doll you have ! 

10. You have a pretty doll. 

11. Have you a pretty doll? 

You see that each of these sentences begins with a 
larger letter. Such a letter is called a capital. 

You see also that after each declarative and each 
imperative sentence is a dot, showing that the sentence 
has ended. This dot (.) is called a period. 



THE SENTENCE. 13 

After each sentence that asks a question is a different 
mark (?), called an interrogation mark. 

After each exclamatory sentence is still another mark 
(!), called an exclamation mark. 

Finally, the name of the person of whom a question 
is asked, or to whom a command is given, is set off by 
commas (,). Therefore: — 

1 . Every declarative or imperative sentence should 
begin with a capital and end with a period. 

2. Every interrogative sentence should begin with 
a capital and end with an interrogation mark. 

3. Every exclamatory sentence should begin with 
a capital and end with an exclamation mark. 

4. The word or words which show of whom a 
question is asked should be separated from the rest 
of the sentence by a comma or by commas. 

5. The word or words which sIioav to whom a 
command is given should be separated from the 
command by a comma or by commas. 

Fill the blanks so as to ask questions, and place the 
proper mark after each sentence : — 

1. Shall I 10. When was 

2. Who took care of you 11. Can such a thing 

when 12. Where will you go 

3. What does after 

4. Which 13. Is this the prettiest 

5. How many color for 

6. Must he 14. Do you know what 

7. How do you know 15. in America 

that 16. to write sentences 

8. May I go to 17. Will you or he 

9. Why do we 18. How could 

Remember the value which some of these first words 
have in asking questions. Thus who refers to person ; 



14 LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

what refers to thing ; when refers to time ; where refers 
to place ; why refers to reason ; and so on. 

Use the above question-words, and make interroga- 
tive sentences about : — 



doll 


boy 


city 


apple 


cat 


pencil 


cart 


horse 


book 


slate 


home 


dog 



Write sentences asking Alice, Mary, Grace, Fannie, 
Cora, and Mattie to do something; then command them 
to do it. 

Join these words so as to make imperative sentences, 
and put the right mark after each : — 

1. me, for, wait, Oril 

2. run, not, please, do, Harry, fast, so 

3. store, and, go, to, the, ribbon, some, buy, red. 

4. all, to, you, Bertie, give, fast, hold, I 

5. evil, of, the, shun, appearance 

Join these words so as to make interrogative sen- 
tences, and put the right mark after each : — 

1. how, fly, birds, fast, can 

2. hat, man, the, a, has 

3. wood, the, are, birds, in, the, singing 

4. skate, go, me, Saturday, will, with, you, to, next 

5. want, you, many, do, how 

6. me, are, Christmas, going, drum, next, a, get, to, you 

7. school, after, play, out, ball, is, we, shall 

8. you, how, are, old 

9. that, coming, did, not, were, you, why, tell, you, me 

Write five interrogative sentences, using in each the 
name of one of your schoolmates, and putting the 
proper marks where they are needed. 

Write six imperative sentences, giving in the first 
three the name of the person commanded, and omitting 
it in the last three. Use the proper marks. 



THE SENTENCE. 15 

Fill the following blanks so as to make exclamatory 
sentences, placing the proper mark at the end of each: — 

1. How pretty 

2. What fun 

3. What a fine 

Remember, however, that a sentence may begin with 
how or what, and not be exclamatory. Thus : — 

How did you go ? 
What did you see ? 

Join these words so as to make exclamatory sen- 
tences : — 

1. rich, is, how, he 

2. has, what, eyes, she, pretty 

3. man, is, that, tall, very, how 

Copy these exercises, use capital letters and marks 
wherever they are needed, and tell what kind of sen- 
tence each is, and why : — 

1. where have you been alice 8. margie did you do that 

2. whose love equals a mother's 9. what a sweet singer the mock- 

3. come to me fido ing-bird is 

4. torn, put down that cat 10. how hard it is to learn these 

5. has she gone Albert lessons 

6. please Mabel give me that 11. how dogs delight to bark 

rose 12. how much do you wish 

7. what did you find to eat 

Change each of the following into one or more inter- 
rogative sentences : — 

Model. — You are happy. Are you happy? Why are you 
happy? How happy are you? 

1. Birds can sing. 4. It upset. 

2. You are going. 5. Koses are the most beautiful 

3. James, you have brought the of flowers. 

book. 6. Girls can skate. 



16 LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

Change each of the following into an imperative 
sentence : — 

Model. — Fido eats his dinner. Fido, eat your dinner. Frank, 
are you going to the store? Frank, go to .the store. 

1. Children should obey their parents. 

2. The canary sings his best song for me. 

3. Baby will sleep a little longer. 

4. Nellie, are you going to walk up the hill? 

5. George, will you bring me the ink? 

6. Will you carry the basket, Emma? 

7. Are you, Annie, laughing at me ? 

THE TWO PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 

Clara wept. 
Kittens play. 
Smoke rises. 

Who is spoken of in the first sentence? What is 
spoken of in the second? In the third? 

Which word shows what is said about Clara ? About 
kittens ? About smoke ? 

EveVy sentence may be thus divided into two parts : 
the part about which something is spoken or written, 
called the subject; and the part which is spoken 
or written about the subject, called the predicate. 
Hence : — 

The subject of a sentence names that about which 
something is said. 

The predicate of a sentence is that which is said 
about the subject. 

Divide each of the following sentences into subject 
and predicate : — 

Model. — Bees sting. This tells something, and therefore it is 
a declarative sentence. Bees tells what is spoken about ; therefore 



THE SENTENCE. 



17 



bees is the subject. Sting tells what is said about the subject; 
therefore sting is the predicate. 



1. Carthage fell. 

2. Gold glitters. 

3. Industry enriches. 

4. Misery crushes. 

5. Frogs hop. 



6. Rome remains. 

7. Peter repented. 

8. Art refines. 

9. Hope cheers. 
10. Lions roar. 



The subject may be expressed by more than one 
word ; as, Poor, weak Peter repented. 

The predicate may be expressed by more than one 
word ; as, Poor, weak Peter repented bitterly. 

Make the following words subjects by saying some- 
thing about the things which they denote. Begin each 
sentence with a capital letter, and put in the proper 
marks. 



1. I 

2. you 

3. they 

4. we 



5. he 

6. the flowers 

7. the grass 

8. the elephant 



Make the following words predicates by supplying 
subjects that shall include more than one word. 



1. was caught 

2. have been killed 

3. has been trying 



4. were climbing 

5. eat nuts 

6. has a kite 



In sentences of more than two words there are still 
two chief words, corresponding to the two chief ideas 
of the thought expressed; and the others are looked 
upon as helps to these. Thus : — 



1. 


Horses 


ran 


2. 


Two horses 


ran swiftly 


3. 


Two large horses 


ran very swiftly 


4. 


Two large black horses 


ran very swiftly across the field 


5. 


Two large black horses 


ran very swiftly across the field 




belonging to Mr. Smith 


yesterday 



18 LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

In the first sentence we have what may be called the 
naked subject and the naked predicate. The helping 
words in the second tell how many horses ran, and how 
they ran. The other helping words in the third tell of 
what size the horses were, and how fast they ran. The 
additional helping words in the fourth tell of what 
color the horses were, and where they ran. The help- 
ing words added to these in the fifth tell whose horses, 
and when they ran. 

Build up sentences like the above from each of the 
following : — 

1. Children study. . . j What kind of children ? Stud y 

( what? Where? How? 

r Build what? Where? (Mention 

2. Birds build ■) three places.) What time of the 

( year ? Of what ? How ? 

3. Hay is made j 0f what ? B * whom? Where? In 

(. what season? Why? 

4. Fish were caught A What kind? How many? By whom? 

( How? For what purpose? Where? 

The subject may be implied, not expressed; as in 
imperative sentences. Thus : — 

Stop : that is, [You] stop. 

Look : that is, [You] look. 

Shut the door : that is, [You] shut the door. 

The marks around you are called brackets. They 
are used to show that words which were not expressed 
have been supplied. 

In interrogative sentences the predicate contains at 
least two words, and the subject is oftenest placed 
between them. Thus : — 

Are you going? Do you blame me ? 

Must I stay ? Did the black horse run down street ? 



THE SENTENCE. 19 

That is : — 



Subject. 


Predicate. 


You 

I 

You 

The black horse 


are going 

must stay 

do blame me 

did run down street 



Copy the following sentences ; draw a straight line 
under the naked subject, and two straight lines under 
the naked predicate. When there are helping words, 
put curved lines around them, and state what these 
words tell us : — 

Model. — (My) tree will bear (apples) (this fall). 

1. We must go. 

2. William can skate. 

3. A man can laugh at his own wit. 

4. You are running away. 

5. We must go by the road. 

6. I have some letters in the mail. 

7. Charles will go to college this month. 

8. Every rule is made for some good purpose. 

9. Harry may go fishing. 

10. Many fish are caught in the lake. 

Now make the foregoing sentences interrogative, and 
see where each subject stands. 

Ask questions with am, is, are, was, were, do, does, 
did, has, have, may, can, could, would ; and divide each 
sentence into its parts, as above. 

The usual order, which puts the subject before the 
predicate, is often changed, not only in interrogative 
sentences, but in others. Thus : — 

Here ends the tale. 
There is no help for us. 
May nothing prevent you. 



20 LANGUAGE AND GBAMMAB. 

In each of the following, put the subject first : — 

1. Many are our faults. 6. Betwixt eyes and nose a 

2. Down the hill ran a little brook. strange contest arose. 

3. There was a dense fog. 7. How distant are the stars ? 

4. May there be enough for all. 8. Were many there ? 

5. When shall we be free ? 9. Out flew a bird. 



QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 

1. What must be true of words in order that they may tell 

something ? 

2. What name is given to a group of words that tells something? 

3. What is the use of italics in pointing ? 

4. Write three sentences, and indicate in each a word to be made 

italic. 

5. How many kinds of sentences are there ? Define and give an 

example of each. 

6. What is to be remembered about the beginning of every 

sentence ? 

7. With what mark should a declarative sentence end? An in- 

terrogative sentence? An imperative sentence? An ex- 
clamatory sentence ? 

8. What mark should follow the name of the person of whom a 

question is asked or to whom a command is given ? 

9. In the following sentences put marks and capital letters 

wherever they are needed, and tell what kind of sen- 
tence each is: (1) are you listening to me mary (2) the 
clouds give promise of rain (3) how happy I am (4) boys 
wait for your sister (5) the birds are singing in the trees 
(6) what a curious shell 

10. Into how many parts may a sentence be divided ? Name and 

define each. 

11. What is the naked subject? The naked predicate? 

12. Write five sentences, drawing a single line under the naked 

subject, and a double line under the naked predicate. 

13. For what purpose are brackets used ? 

14. How many words does the predicate of an interrogative sen- 

tence contain? Where is the subject usually placed? 



ANALYSIS AND DIAGRAMMING. 



21 



CHAPTER II. 



Analysis and Diagramming. 

To pick out the parts of a sentence is to analyze it. 
To mark or denote the relations of these parts by lines 
is to diagram it. For this purpose let us inclose in a 
bracket the subject and the predicate. This shows how 
the predicate is coupled to the subject. Thus :. — 



Boys 
play 



This tells or asserts something, and is therefore a de- 
clarative sentence. Boys shows what the assertion is 
about, and is therefore the subject. Play shows what 
is asserted (told), and is therefore the predicate. 

For each word in the first column below make as 
many good-sense predicates as possible by joining words 
in the second and third columns ; then analyze and 
diagram the resulting sentences. 



Acorns 




is 


woven 


Bells 
Columbus 




was 
may be 


growing 
numerous 


Corn 




are 


seen 


Summer 




have been 


rung 


Carpets 




has 


imprisoned 


Sparrows 




were 


come 


Comets 




could have been 


sprouting 


Model. 


— Cor 


n is growing. — 


Corn 

is growing 



22 LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

Words added to the naked subject to express kind, 
number, etc., may be written as in the diagrams of the 
following : — 

(a) The wind is howling. 

(b) Angry winds are howling. 

(c) The angry wind is howling. 



rrn 

(a) ("wind | The (b) fwinds | Angry (c) ["wind | ] 



wind | The (b) 
is howling 



winds | Angry (c) 
are howling 



wind | 
is howling 



A similar position will be given to words added to 
the naked predicate, and telling how, when, or where, 
etc. Thus : — 

He spoke eloquently yesterday in Sunday school. 

rHe 

r eloquently 

L spoke | J yesterday 

I in Sunday school 

Note. — Be careful to keep the correct capitalization in the 
diagram. 

Diagram the following : — 

1. The beautiful flower was crushed. 

2. The young man walked rapidly. 

3. The little boy is very good. 

4. Black clouds appear in the sky. 

5. All horses will eat oats. 

6. Shall we miss this sentence ? 

7. Good boys study grammar faithfully at home. 

In speech, the same thing may often be said of two 
or more things. Thus we can say : — 

Men were present. 
Women were present. 
Children were present. 



ANALYSIS AND DIAGBAMMING. 23 

It is better, however, not to repeat the words that are 
alike, but to say*, — 

Men, women, and children were present. 

Here are three things spoken about ; that is, there are 
three name-words with one predicate. 

When two or more name-words have the same predi- 
cate, they form a compound subject. 

We can saj^ : — 

Empires rise. 
Empires flourish. 
Empires decay. 

But it is better to combine these several statements into 
a single sentence : — 

Empires rise, flourish, and decay. 

Here are three things said about empires ; that is, there 
are three stating- words with one subject. 

When two or more stating- words have the same sub- 
ject, they form a compound predicate. 

Again, several quality-words may be used along with 
the name of a thing. Thus we can say : — 

Dear Nell was dead. 
Gentle Nell was dead. 
Patient Nell was dead. 
Noble Nell was dead. 

But it is much shorter to say : — 

Dear, gentle, patient, noble Nell was dead. 

In this sentence are several helping words, used along 
with the subject Nell, and telling of what sort or kind. 

Several words used in the same way, one after an- 
other, as in these examples, are called a series. 



24 



LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 



Words in a series are generally separated from 
each other hy commas, 

When all the words of a series are joined by and, use 
no commas ; as, Mary and Alice will go ; Men and boys 
and dogs ran by. 

Make a single sentence out of each of the following 
sets of statements : — 



1. 



3. 



4. <( 



The owl eats mice. 

The owl eats birds. 

The owl conceals itself in barns. 

The owl conceals itself in hay-lofts. 
. The owl conceals itself in the hollows of old trees. 
r Washington was a good man. 
■I He was a noble man. 
I He was a great man. 

He reads books. 

He reads good books. 

He reads slowly. 

He reads silently. 

He reads to improve his mind. 

Coal is hard. 

Coal is black. 

Coal is inflammable. 
r London is a large city. 
^ Paris is a large city. 

I New York is a large city. 
r I came. 

■I I saw. 

I I conquered. 
i Wolves hunt in packs. 
( Wild dogs hunt in packs. 

Copy the following sentences, and place a comma or 
period where it is needed. Make no marks in your 
books : — 

1. The moon has no water no atmosphere 

2. Lakes rivers hills and plains are beautiful 

3. They study reading spelling arithmetic and drawing 



7. 



8. 



ANALYSIS AND DIAGBAMMING. 



25 



4. Quails eat berries grain and small insects 

5. He was very tall straight and dignified 

6. He bought and sold horses and cattle 

Fill the blanks with words that will form a series and 
complete the sentence : — 



■ and grow in summer. 

and die in winter. 

and revive in the spring. 



A cat has and 

A rain will improve the 

and grew there. 



and 



7. We saw 

8. Men live in 



and 



and 



Analyze and diagram the following sentences accord- 
ing to the model. Thus : — 

1. Harry, Lucy, and I are learning rapidly. 

This tells something, and therefore it is a declarative 
sentence. Harry, Lucy, and I are the three things of 
which something is said, and therefore the subject is 
compound. Are learning rapidly shows what is said of 
the subject, and is therefore the predicate. Rapidly is 
used along with the bare predicate, are learning, to tell 
how they are learning. 

Harry " 



i — i 
Lucy 

: P 
: 3 
: p. 



are learning | rapidly 

Note. — All connectives are underscored. The brackets [ 
denote that an and is understood. This mark \ is called a brace, 
and words thus enclosed are equal in rank. 



26 



LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 



2. The war began at Lexington, and ended at Yorktown. 

This sentence tells something, and therefore is a de- 
clarative sentence. War tells what is spoken of, and 
is therefore the naked subject. Began and ended show 
what is told, and are the compound naked predicate. 
The, at Lexington, and at Yorktown are helping words. 
The first is a helping word of war; the second, of 
began ; and the third, of ended. 



war | The 
f began | at Lexington 

: p 

■ P 
: cl 



ended | at Yorktown 



3. Does a farmer raise melons, fruits, and flowers ? 

This sentence asks something, and therefore is an in- 
terrogative sentence. Farmer shows what is asked 
about, and is therefore the naked subject. Does raise, 
etc., shows what is asked about the subject, and is 
therefore the naked predicate. A, melons, fruits, and 
flowers are helping words ; the first belonging to farmer, • 
and the rest to raise. 



farmer | A 



does raise I 



' melons 



fruits 

IB 

[_ flowers 



Helping words used thus with the predicate to tell 
what, are called object complements, and are written to 
the right of the verb, and separated from it by ||. 



ANALYSIS AND DIAGRAMMING. 



27 



4. A brave, prudent, and honorable man was chosen, 
brave 



: &- 
i i 

prudent 



: 3 
: p. 



, honorable 
was chosen 



5. He rose, reigned, and fell. 

6. Time and tide never wait. 

7. Corn, tallow, flax, and hemp are exported from Russia. 

8. Owls fly low, and sleep on the ground. 

9. Do wheat, oats, and rye ripen together? 

10. He bought a slate, a pencil, and some paper. 

11. A tall, straight, and dignified man came to the house. 

12. Have you care and sorrow ? 



QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 

1. What is it to analyze a sentence ? To diagram a sentence? 

2. Define a compound subject. A compound predicate. A series. 

3. How are words in a series generally separated from one another? 

What exception to this rule ? 

4. Supply needed commas and periods in the following sentences: 

(1) We have tulips pinks roses and nasturtiums in our garden 

(2) The stern face would relax and grow soft pensive and 
gentle (3) Can you count one two three four five ? 

5. Analyze the following sentences by diagram : (1) Shall I read 

this story to Henry and Lucy? (2) Several hundred years 
ago a new country was found. 



28 LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR, 



CHAPTER III. 
Classes of Words. 

THE NOUN. 

Read these sentences and tell every word that names 
something : — 

1. Cork floats. 

2. A good son obeys his parents. 

3. The man saw a rabbit. 

4. Father went to Boston. 

5. Make a picture of a rose. 

6. The boy had no pity for the girl. 

7. The usefulness of iron is very great. 

Many words are used to name things. All things 
that can be seen or thought of have names. Instead of 
names, we usually say nouns. Name and noun have 
the same meaning. Hence : — 

A noun is the name of anything. 

Be careful not to confound a thing with its name. 
Suppose a book to be held up, and the question asked, 
" Is this a noun ? " the proper answer would be, " The 
thing is not a noun, but its name — book — is a noun." 

Write the names of six persons ; of six places ; of six 
things ; of six actions ; of six feelings ; of six qualities. 

Select the nouns among the following words : — 

1. Nellie, for, wisely, Mary, tell, ,across, Bessie, when. 

2. hand, the, an, house, and, quill, school, of, dog, with, good, 

cat. 

3. rat, to, pin, stove, or, axe, hoe, nine, ten, horse. 



CLASSES OF WOBDS. 29 

4. bird, story, up, off, sun, twenty, moon, went, down, star, in. 

5. broom, over, ran, grass, wheat, corn, bread, eat, meat. 

6. desk, think, small, apple, brick, shall, river, sell, peach. 

7. never, Boston, sober, the, Albany, declaim, Pittsburg. 

8. good, goodness ; soft, softness ; wicked, wickedness. 

9. The lark is up to meet the sun, 

The bee is on the wing, 
The ant its labor has begun, 
The woods with music ring. 



THE PRONOUN. 

In speaking of yourself, what little words save you 
the trouble of repeating your own name continually? 
If you were standing before the looking-glass, would 
you think and say, Fannie sees Fannie, or I see myself? 
If Mary were standing there with you, how would you 
say it ? Not Mary and Fannie see Mary and Fannie, 
but We see ourselves. This is much easier, and sounds 
better. 

Read these sentences : — 

London is in England. 1. It is a large city. 

Eva and Annie had a cat. 2. They taught it tricks. 

Eva went to the picnic. 3. She enjoyed it. 

Frank has a bad habit. 4. He smokes. 

Charles had a coon. 5. It bit him. 

What word is used for London ? What word is used 
for Eva and Annie ?. What word for cat ? What word 
stands for Eva ? What word stands for Frank ? What 
for Charles ? What for coon ? 

Words thus used instead of names are called pro- 
nouns, because pro means for, and pro-noun means for 
a noun. Hence : — 

Pronouns are words used for nouns. 



30 LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

In the following sentences put pronouns where they 
can be used instead of nouns : — 

1. Mary has a book, and Mary is getting Mary's lesson. 

2. The scholars are coming; the scholars have the scholars' 
books with the scholars. 

3. The dogs chased the fox, but the dogs did not catch the fox. 

4. The teacher told the boys that the teacher would read the 
boys a story if the boys would keep quiet. 

5. John went to see Jane, and John asked Jane if Jane would 
not come to John's father's house and bring Jane's brother to see 
John. 

6. The girl fears the girl's doll is sick ; so the girl shows the 
girl's doll to Tom, and Tom feels the doll's pulse. 

Use nouns for the pronouns in this story : — 
A boy found a nest of young sparrows, and put them into his, 
hat. He then set the hat on his head, thinking no one would know 
that they were under it. As he walked through the streets, instead 
of lifting his hat to bow to people, he held it fast upon his head. 
This made everybody wonder. At last one man said, " Let me 
see if his hat has grown to his head." Away went the sparrows 
as he lifted the hat from the boy's head. Everybody laughed ; 
and now, if a boy does not lift his hat when he meets people, they 
say, " Perhaps he has sparrows under his hat." 

Use each of these words as the subject of a sentence : — 
I, it, we, he, they, she, you. 

The pronoun I should be a capital letter. 

Make sentences containing the pronouns : — 
me, our, your, his, him, her, its, their, them. 

THE ADJECTIVE. 

What ink is meant by the word ink ? What people 
are meant by the word people ? Which table do we 
mean by the word table ? What apple does the word 
apple mean ? 



CLASSES OF WORDS, 31 

Each of these names, standing alone, will apply to 
anything of its kind in the whole world. But if we say 
red ink, the word ink applies only to ink of this color ; 
that is, its meaning is made less by the use of the word 
red. If we say American people, the word people no 
longer means the people of France, of England, of Italy, 
and so on, but of our own country. If we say the 
round table or the second table, tables of any other 
shape (as square), or of any other order (as first, third, 
and so on), are excluded. 

Which applies to the greater number of things, the 
word apple, or yellow apple? Which has the wider 
meaning, yellow apple, or large yelloiv apple ? Do you 
see any difference between this apple and that apple, 
or between one apple and some apples ? 

To change the meaning of a word in such a man- 
ner — that is, to make its meaning less general — is to 
limit, restrict, or modify it. 

A word that modifies the meaning of a noun or pro- 
noun is an adjective. 

Usually the adjective precedes the noun or pronoun 
modified ; but instead of saying : — 

1. The dark night, 2. Beautiful flowers, 

we can say : — 

3. The night is dark, 4. Flowers are beautiful. 

That is, the idea expressed by the adjective may be 
assumed (as in 1 and 2), or it may be asserted (as in 
3 and 4). Because the asserted adjective shows what is 
said of the subject, it is often called predicate adjective 
or attribute complement. 

Remember that adjectives are merely helping words. 
They do not stand alone. Indeed, they are so called 



32 LANGUAGE AND GEAMMAB. 

because they are added to a noun or pronoun to de- 
scribe (as bitter fruit) or point out (as the, this, or that 
book) the thing named. 

Select the nouns, pronouns, and adjectives in the fol- 
lowing, first stating what the word tells us, then giving 
its class : — 

Two little squirrels, a red one and a gray one, lived in the 
same woods. The gray squirrel was a very busy fellow, and 
gathered all his nuts in the fall, and laid them by for winter ; but 
the red squirrel ran about in the sunshine, and had a merry time 
springing about in the trees. It was all very well till winter came; 
then the little red squirrel had to go to the gray one and beg a 
little food. " Ah ! " said the gray squirrel, as he gave him some, 
" next fall you will be much wiser, will you not ? " 

Fill the blanks with adjectives : — 

1. The tree bears apples. 

2. Do you like a apple better than a one ? 

3. boys quarrel, but boys do not. 

4. The elephant has ears and a trunk. 

5. The soldiers wear coats with buttons. 

6. London is a city. 

7. My coat is made of cloth. 

8. This boy gave his sister a 

apple. 

9. The rose is a and flower. 

10. This banker owns a house, and rides in an 

carriage drawn by horses. 

Give after each of the following adjectives one that 
has the opposite meaning : — 

Boys may be Girls may be 

good or timid or 

kind or patient or 

honest or amiable or 



CLASSES OF WORDS. 



33 



Apples may be 

sweet or 

ripe or 

large or 

mellow or 

Pencils may be 

long or 

dull or 

whole or 

rough or 

soft or 

Pictures may be 

bright or 

large or 

square or 

new or 

valuable or — 



Stones may be 

rough or 

heavy or 

hard or 

thick or 

Water may be 

shallow or 

fresh or 

cold or 

stagnant or 

clear or 

A sound may be 

loud or 

high or 

short or 

harsh or 

pleasant or 



Make adjectives of the following nouns, and use each 
one in a sentence : — 
By adding y to — 

cloud, wind, rain, sleet, storm. 

By adding ly (meaning like} to — 

man, king, world, woman, saint, friend. 

By adding ful (meaning full of} to — 

hate, need, use, rest, thought, peace, wonder. 

By adding less (meaning loose, from, or without} to — 
art, god, fear, hope, sin, heart, brain. 

By prefixing un (meaning not} to — 
true, tidy, able, fit, welcome, kind. 

By prefixing in, im, ir, or il (meaning not} to — 

possible, correct, perfect, regular, legal. 
By adding en (meaning made of} to — 
1, wool, oak, silk, wood. 



34 LANGUAGE AND GBAMMAB. 

THE VERB. 

Try to make a sentence about Edward by using only 
nouns, or pronouns, and adjectives. Can you do it? 
You find that you cannot. Now read : — 

1. Edward writes. 6. The letter is written. 

2. The ball rolls. 7. The ball is rolled. 

3. The hen scratches. 8. The ground is scratched 

4. I am. 9. He sleeps. 

5. We are. 10. They feel. 

Writes, rolls, scratches, tell what the subject does. Is 
written, is rolled, is scratched, tell what is done to the 
subject. Am and are express existence. Sleeps and 
feel tell, not what something does, but in what condi- 
tion or state it is. They are all alike in this respect, — 
they say, tell, or assert. 

A great many words are used in this way. They 
form, by this likeness of use, a class, and are called 
verbs. Hence : — 

A verb is a word that asserts something about the 
subject of a sentence. 

In sentences 6, 7, and 8, we see that the verb is com- 
posed of two words. We can also say : — 

The ball ivill roll. The ball will have been rolling. 

The ball could roll. The ball has been rolled. 

If you are not sure whether a word is a verb, ask 
whether it makes good sense with I, you, or he before 
it. If not, it is not a verb. 

Be careful not to call the predicate adjective a verb ; 
as in the example, He is happy. 

Select the verbs in the following, first telling of what 
subject each one asserts : — 



CLASSES OF WORDS. 35 

Sam, a colored man, was once a cook on a ship. He saved 
some money and opened a coffee-house on the water front, where 
all the ships and steamers land. Sam had a parrot named Jack. 
He was a big bird with red and green feathers, and could talk 
very well. Jack used to sit in his cage, above the door of the 
coffee-house, and called out to people who passed that way : " Hot 
coffee! Who'll have some coffee? Step inside and get some. 
Only ten cents a cup." His master had taught him to speak these 
words, so as to make business for the coffee-house. Sometimes 
Jack would say words he had learned himself, and seemed to like 
to make mischief. A man once left his horse and cart standing on 
the wharf near the water, and went into the coffee-house. While 
he was there drinking his coffee, Jack cried out to the horse: 
"Back, sir! back! back, I say!" The horse thought his master 
was talking to him, and so he backed until the cart went over the 
edge of the wharf and the horse fell into the water and was almost 
drowned, when some men pulled him ashore. Jack, the mis- 
chievous parrot, after playing this trick, was not permitted to 
perch above the door any longer, and his cage was taken into the 
coffee-house. 

Fill the blanks with suitable verbs : — 

1. The dog ■ at the cat, and she upon the wall. 

2. John into the house and the door. 

3. The deer over the fence. 

4. The hunter the fox. 

5. The rat the cheese, but the boy him in a trap. 

6. The dog the boy , and the boy him for it. 

7. My sister and upon the piano. 

8. The farmer the ground and the wheat. 

, 9. The fire the fuel and our food. 

10. The sun in the east and in the west. 

11. The old bird seeds and them to her young 

ones. 

12. The lame man with a cane, which he in his right 

hand. 

13. The woodman the trees which in the forest. 

14. The boys at ball; one of them the ball, another 

it with his bat, and a third one it. 



36 LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

THE ADVERB. 

The adjective, as we have seen, is used in connec- 
tion with the noun. Now in much the same way we 
find a great many words joined to the verb. Thus we 

may say : — 

1. The ship sailed yesterday. 

2. The ship sailed rapidly. 

3. The ship sailed away. 

When did the ship sail ? How did it sail ? Where did 
it sail ? Again, we may say : — 

4. The very heavy ship sailed fairly well. 

What word tells how heavy ? What kind of a word 
is heavy ? Does well tell how the ship sailed ? What 
word tells how well ? 

Observe that in sentences 1, 2, and 3 the modifiers 
are joined directly to the bare subject or the bare predi- 
cate ; while in the fourth sentence one modifier is joined 
to another, — very to heavy, and fairly to well. 

Words thus used to tell how, when, or where form a 
class. They are oftenest joined to verbs, and hence are 
called ad-verbs, which means to-a-verb. Hence : — 

An adverb is a word used to limit the meaning of a 
verb, an adjective, or an adverb. 

Fill the blanks with adverbs : — 

1. The sun will rise (When ?) 

2. Wait for me (Where ?) 

3. She recited (How ?) 

4. He has been reproved (How often.) 

5. A lovely day. 

6. Mary sings well. 

7. The crowd cheered 

8. is he going so ? 

9. We were surprised by a cordial welcome. 

10. You should listen attentively. 



CLASSES OF WORDS. 37 

Make sentences containing adverbs formed by adding 
ly to each of the following adjectives. Change final y 
to t, and drop le from those ending in hie : — 

pure beautiful vile 

soft handsome feeble 

tender musical busy 

pretty merry peaceable 

lucky coy funny 

Put corresponding adverbs for the adjectives printed 
in italics : — 

1. He is a siuift writer. He writes 

2. Her singing was sweet. She sang 

3. Their failure was complete. They failed 

4. Jack is a fast swimmer. Jack can swim 

5. Your labors were successful. You labored 

6. Tom had a heavy fall. Tom fell 

7. His sufferings must have been He must have suffered 

severe and long. and 

8. My suspicions were correct. I suspected 

9. We took a sly peep. We peeped 

10. I gave him a steady look. I looked at him. 

11. The whole blame was his. He was to blame. 

12. He showed true sorrow. He was sorry. 

Diagram the following sentences : — 

1. A peculiarly interesting story was told. 

"story | | A 

( interesting | peculiarly 

was told 

2. So brave an act can never be too warmly commended. 

fact | l brave I So 
( an 

can be commended I { never 
'- ( warmly | too 

Note. — The pupil must notice carefully the position of all the 
adverbs in diagrams 1 and 2. 



38 LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

3. Shall I not help him ? 



Shall 



help | 



| him 
not 



4. How impatiently the ship tosses herself. 



ship | the 

, ( II herself 

tosses -< " . 

( | impatiently | How 



5. This is too often true. 



["This 
l is \ true 

(often | too 

Note. — Notice carefully the line \ between predicate verb and 
attribute complement. The attribute complement, whether noun 
or adjective, should be so indicated. Notice also the manner of 
representing the modification of the complete predicate, is true, by 
the phrase, too often. 



7. 



10. 
11. 
12. 
13. 
14. 
15. 



The fire burns brightly. 

Its brightness had quite disappeared. 

I was much happier. 

Does he speak promptly and distinctly ? 

The paper is published daily. 

Hereafter, we will write frequently. 

Will you go there often ? 

He did not ride gracefully yesterday. 

Do not play there to-day. 

Is this very excellent magazine issued monthly ? 



Where an adverb (as not or never) is between the 
parts of the verb, be careful not to call the adverb 
a part of the verb. Thus, in / cannot go, the verb is 
can go ; not is an adverb denying the statement. 



CLASSES OF WORDS. 39 



THE PREPOSITION. 



Let us now examine the following : — 

f in 
on 



The pencil may be found <( 



> the book. 



[_ under 

The book with the ribbon in it belongs to the boy at the head of 
•the class. 

If we here try to omit the little words in, on, by, under, 
with, to, at, and of, we shall see how hard it is to make 
sentences without them and others of their kind. They 
do not name things, nor do they tell what things do. 
They modify nothing, but they enable us to express 
relations. Thus : — 

may be found on the book, 

book with the ribbon, 

ribbon in it, 

belongs to the boy, 

boy at the head, 

head of the class, — 

on shows the relation between book and may be found ; 
in, between it and ribbon; to, between boy and belongs ; 
at, between head and boy ; of, between class and head. 

Such words, since they are commonly placed before 
the noun or pronoun which they relate to other words, 
are called prepositions. Hence : — 

A preposition shows the relation between a noun or 
pronoun or its equivalent and some other word in the 
sentence. 

The noun or pronoun or its equivalent following the 
preposition is called the object. The preposition and 
its object is called an adjunct. 

Adjuncts, if they modify nouns (or pronouns), are 
adjectives: a man of wealth; that is, a wealthy man. 



40 LANGUAGE AND GBAMMAR. 

They are adverbs if they modify adjectives : medicine 
good for the fever. They are adverbs likewise if they 
modify verbs, and tell where, when, why, or how. 

Notice that there may be adjectives or other words 
between the preposition and its object ; as, They all live 
in one little log house. Ask, in what? The answer 
will be not in one, nor in little, nor in log, but in house. 
The object of a preposition always answers a question 
consisting of the preposition and what or whom. 

Try to remember what preposition is to be correctly 
used with certain words and meanings. Thus, say : — 

accuse of 

adapted to 

arrive in or at 

attended, accompanied, by (that which has life) 

attended, accompanied, with (things without life) 

call at (a place) 

call on (a person) 

compare with (in respect to quality) 

compare to (for illustration) 

correspond with (by letter) 

correspond to (to agree) 

die of (disease) 

die by (an instrument) 

die for (another) 

differ from (in opinion) 

differ with (to quarrel) 

divide between (two persons) 

divide among (more than two) 

preferable to 

similar to 

sympathize with 

wait for (to await) 

wait on (to visit, to demand) 

worthy of 

Make sentences containing the above. 



CLASSES OF WOBDS. 41 

Fill the blanks with suitable prepositions, point out 
the related words, and tell to what class the adjunct 
belongs. Thus, on shows the relation between the noun 
donkey and the verb was riding ; therefore it is a prepo- 
sition. The adjunct, on a donkey, modifies the verb 
was riding, and therefore it is an adverb : — 

An old man was once riding a donkey. His son was 

walking his side. " You are a lazy fellow," said the first 

stranger that met them ; " why do you not put the boy the 

donkey ? " The old man got down the donkey and set the 

boy his place ; but before they had gone many yards, another 

stranger cried out, " What a shameful thing ! That strong young 

fellow is riding, while • this old man is his legs. Get down, 

young man." So the old man took his son the donkey, and 

all three walked, man, boy, and donkey. As they passed the 

next village, all the villagers laughed them and shouted, 

" Why do you not both mount the donkey ? " When they 

heard this, they both got up, the old man before and the young 

man him. But when they had come the village, and a 

little way it, two travellers shouted them, "Look at 

those two big strong fellows one poor little donkey. They 

ought to carry the donkey, for certainly the donkey cannot carry 

them." Again the old man got off, and great difficulty they 

fastened the donkey a stout pole, and thus carried him 

them their shoulders. But the next village the people 

ran out to see the ridiculous sight, and the laughter was louder than 

ever. Then the young man said his father, " Had we not 

better try to please ourselves? for it seems impossible to please 
everybody." 

Diagram the following sentences : — 

1. My doll came from Paris. 

"doll | My 

came I from Paris 



42 LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 



brook , 

little 



2. The little brook ran swiftly under the bridge. 
(The 
(lit 

( swiftly 

( under bridge | the 

3. The laurels of the warrior must at all times be dyed in 
blood. 

"laurels I { The 

( of warrior | the 

must be dyed I \ at times I a11 
( in blood 

4. Were not the finest cherries on the big tree picked for his 
particular benefit ? 

T the 
cherries I i fi nes t 

on tree | j the 
(big 

Were picked I ( not 

( for benefit M nis . 

( particular 

5. A fine landscape lay before us. 

6. The work before us was full of danger. 

7. The boys slid down the hill on their sleds. 

8. The pig crawled under the fence into the field. 

9. An extravagantly high price was paid for that dress. 
10. Is not the capital of New York situated on the Hudson? 

THE CONJUNCTION. 

Let us notice a few such statements as the following: — 

The moon shines. The stars shine. 

He was an honest boy. He was an industrious boy. 

He was a bright boy. He was a mischievous boy. 

He goes to school. He does not learn his lesson. 

You will not reap. You do not sow. 

This wood is so heavy. It will not float. 

We might express ourselves in this manner, but it would 
be much better to say : — 



CLASSES OF WORDS. 



43 



1. The moon and the stars shine. 

2. He was an honest and industrious boy. 

3. He was a bright but mischievous boy. * 

4. He goes to school, but he does not learn his lesson. 

5. You will not reap if you do not sow. 

6. This wood is so heavy that it will not float. 

Such words as and, hit, if, that, etc., used to join either 
words or sentences, are called conjunctions. Hence : — 

A conjunction is a word used to connect either sen- 
tences or parts of sentences. 

Conjunctions join words that are used in the same 
way, thus forming compound elements, as in 1, 2, 
and 3. Moon and stars is a compound subject ; honest 
and industrious, bright but mischievous, are compound 
modifiers. 

If you are doubtful whether a certain word is a prepo- 
sition or a conjunction, think whether it connects or can 
connect two statements. The office of the conjunction 
lies in its power to connect sentences. Remember, too, 
that the adjunct based on the preposition is not a clause, 
and yet is a modifier. 

In the use of conjunctions, think carefulty of the 
sense of the parts to be joined. Thus : — 



I asked <( 



( hoiv 

when 



i 



I liked him 



where 
y why J 

r and 
after 
before 
when 
for 
since 
because 
therefore 



Y he was going. 



he liked me. 



So 


as : 


As 


• so : 


As 


■ as : 


Such — 


— as : 



44 LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

I like him ] [he dislikes me. 

( though ) 

Conjunctions are often preceded by corresponding 
words. Try to remember the following pairs : — 

Both and : He is both smart 'awe? good. 

Either or : Say either yes or no. 

Neither nor : The boy is neither at home nor in school. 

Whether or : I do not know whether I shall or I shall not go. 

So that : It is so dark that I can hardly see. 

He is not so tall as I. 

As you go, so will I. 

Mine is as good as yours. 

I bought such things as I needed. 

A number of words which, taken together, have the 
power of joining, form a conjunctional phrase : — 

He cried as if his heart would break. 
I like him inasmuch as he likes me. 

Fill the blanks with suitable conjunctions : — 

1. John James will assist you, you request it. 

2. Boys girls recite in the same class. 

3. I cannot walk, I can ride. 

4. He is afflicted, he is happy. 

5. Do not go near the cars, you will get injured. 

6. dead, he yet liveth. 

7. Charles XII acted he were mad. 

8. See you carve out your own fortune, you would 

have any. 

9. the ruby the diamond are more valuable the 

emerald. 

10. Wellington Bliicher was singly a match for Napo- 
leon ; together they overthrew him, shaped the 

destinies of Europe. 

11. Winter soon passes, spring returns. 

12. His brother came, he did not remain. 

13. The scholar was late he had played on his way. 



CLASSES OF WORDS. 45 

14. His little brother sister were not able to read 

to write. 

15. The lame boy cannot run play as yon I can. 

16. James was a good boy, he could not learn his lessons 

so well his classmates. 

17. Boys bait their hooks with flies worms. 

18. Study now, you will not always have a chance to do so. 

19. Our words our deeds should always agree. 

20. Let your words be few to the point. 

Pick out the conjunctions, and tell whether they join 
words or sentences. Mention also the prepositions : — 

Some cows were standing in the barnyard, when one of them 
lifted her foot and accidentally kicked the cow behind her. The 
one that had been kicked was so angry that she lifted her foot 
and kicked the one behind her, thinking she had done it. The 
third kicked a fourth, and the fourth kicked the one behind her ; 
and in a few minutes all the cows were kicking and plunging 
about angrily, and not one of them knew how the trouble began. 

THE INTERJECTION. 

In the sentence, He, alas ! will forget your kindness, 
what is asserted? Do you understand the speaker to 
regret that he will forget your kindness ? What word 
gives you that idea ? Is this word necessary to make 
the assertion ? What, then, is alas used for ? To ex- 
press sudden or strong feeling. 

Other words are in this manner thrown in between 
the parts of discourse to express sudden feeling, but 
have no real connection with the words about them. 
They are called interjections, from inter, meaning be- 
tween and jacere, meaning to throw. Hence : — 

An interjection is a word thrown into a sentence 
or a discourse to express deep or sudden feeling. 

Notice what mark is used after an interjection. 



46 LANGUAGE AND GBAMMAB. 

Use the following in sentences : — 
oh ! ah ! hurrah ! pshaw ! 

Diagram the following : — 

1. Ah ! I am surprised at the news. 

(Ah!) 
I 
am surprised | at news | the 

Note. — Interjections are said to be independent, since they do 
not modify other words. They are enclosed by ( ). All indepen- 
dent elements of a sentence are to be thus diagrammed. 

2. Oh ! how very warm it is ! 

(Oh!) 
it 

is \ warm | j how 
( very 

3. Bravo ! bravo ! do not fear. 

4. Umph ! I guess at it. 

5. Pshaw ! my pen is broken. 

6. To -whit ! to-whit ! to-whee ! 
Will you listen to me? 

THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 

Thus our many thousand words are grouped, with 
respect to their use in the sentence, into eight classes. 
Since each has a share or part with other words in 
making speech, these eight classes are called parts of 
speech. 

The noun, the pronoun, and the verb are principal. 
The others may be divided into : — 

Modifiers adjective, adverb. 

Connectives preposition, conjunction. 

Emotion words interjection* 



CLASSES OF WORDS. 47 

Examine each word in the following sentences. First 
explain the use of the word. Does it name something ? 
Does it stand for a name ? Does it assert ? Is it sub- 
ject or predicate ? Does it modify a noun or a pro- 
noun ? If so, it is an adjective. Does it tell the how, 
when, where, or why of a verb ? If so, it is an adverb. 
Does it modify, throw its force upon, an adjective or an 
adverb ? Does it show the relation of a noun or pro- 
noun to some other word? Does it, or can it, join 
statements ? Is it thrown in among other words by 
way of exclamation ? 

LITTLE ORIL'S FANCIES. 

O little flowers ! you love me so, 

You could not do without me ; 
O little birds, that come and go ! 

You sing sweet songs about me. 

O little moss, observed by few, 
That round the tree is creeping ! 

You like my head to rest on you 
While I am idly sleeping. 

O rushes by the river side ! 

You bow when I come near you ; 
O fish ! you leap about with pride 

Because you think I hear you. 

O river ! you shine clear and bright 

To tempt me to look in you ; 
O water lilies, pure and white ! 

You hope that I shall win you. 



48 LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 



CHAPTER IV. 
Words Variously Used. 

It should always be remembered that what fixes the 
class of a word is the way in which it is used in the 
sentence. The same word by a change of use — that 
is, by a change of meaning — becomes a different part 
of speech. Thus : — 

1. A calm succeeds the storm. 

2. It was a calm day. 

3. They calm his fears. 

In the first sentence, calm is the subject, the name of 
a state of weather; therefore it is a noun. In the 
second it modifies a noun, denotes the kind of day ; 
therefore it is an adjective. In the third it asserts ; 
therefore it is a verb. 

In the following sentences the word like is used in 
four different ways. Thus : — 

1. As a noun : I never saw the like before. 

2. As an adjective : Make like spaces between the lines. 

3. As a verb : You may go or stay, as you like. 
4/ As an adverb : He stares like an idiot. 

Note. — As used in (4), like is sometimes called a preposition. 

There is considerable interchange among the three 
classes of words, — adverb, preposition, and conjunc- 
tion. Thus : — 

Adjective : She is but a girl. (only) 

Adverb : If we go, we can but die. (only) 

Preposition : All but him died. (except) 

Conjunction : He heard, but he heeded not. 



WORDS VARIOUSLY USED. 49 

Finally, any word used as the name of itself, is a 
noun. Thus: — 

There is an if in the way. 
Parse the first as in the sentence. 
Have you spelled the correctly ? 

You see clearly from these examples that in order to 
parse a word you must first decide how it is used. 

Tell what parts of speech the italicized words are : — 

1. I shall call in an honr. 

2. He could not hold in his horse. 

3. He fell off (his horse). 

4. The off leader strained his leg. 

5. I have no silver. 

6. He is no better. 

7. You may stay, as it is raining. 

8. 'My book is as clean as yours. 

9. An only son. 

10. I have only two. 

11. The very thing. 

12. You are very late. 

13. I saw him then. 

14. Am I then to stay ? 

15. I like him, yet he avoids me. 

16. The crime is made yet blacker by the pretence of piety. 

17. He stands above us. 

18. He lay above. 

19. Is that for me ? 

20. He went, for he was ready. 

21. The vases stand upon the stand. 

22. I saiv the saw. 

23. They look with an eager look. 

24. He fell into a well, not well covered, and has not been well 

since. 

25. He rode before the lines before the battle began. 

26. I say that such conduct is fit only for a madman. 

27. You sail in that small boat with a sail that might fit a big 

ship. 



50 LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 



QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 

1. What is a noun ? Give three examples. 

2. What is a pronoun ? 

3. What does the word pronoun mean ? 

4. How should the pronoun / always be written ? 

5. What is an adjective? 

6. In what two ways may an adjective be used? 

7. Why may not adjectives stand alone? 

8. Name three syllables sometimes added to nouns to form 

adjectives, and give the meaning of each. 

9. Name two prefixes sometimes used with nouns to form adjec- 

tives, and give the meaning of each. 

10. What part of speech is a necessary element of every sentence? 

11. Define a verb. 

12. How may you be sure that a word is a verb ? 

13. What is an adverb ? 

14. AVhat does the word adverb mean ? 

15. What mistake is sometimes made with the adverbs not and 

never ? 

16. What is a preposition ? 

17. Define the object of a preposition. 

18. What is an adjunct? 

19. Name the two classes of adjuncts. 

20. How can you be sure that a word is a conjunction and not a 

preposition ? 

21. Define a conjunctional phrase. 

22. What is an interjection ? 

23. What mark is used after an interjection ? 

24. Into how many classes are words divided ? 

25. What are these classes called? 

26. Which parts of speech are principal ? Which are modifiers ? 

Which connectives ? 

27. In the following sentence, tell what part of speech each word 

is : The fine black horse that ran swiftly down the street and 
into the stable belongs to my uncle. 



EQUIVALENTS. 51 



CHAPTER V. 
Equivalents. 

Strong men = Men of strength. 

A thorny bush = A bush with thorns. 

Study diligently = Study with diligence. 

The storm grows wilder = The storm is growing wilder. 

Does of strength denote the same idea as strong? 
Two or more related words that do the work of a single 
word are called the equivalent of it. 

What is the equivalent of thorny? Of diligently? 
Of grows ? 

Which of the equivalents are adjuncts ? 

Does it make any difference whether you read these 
equivalents backwards or forwards ? Do the words of 
each seem to be related in a certain order ? 

A phrase is a group of related words that does not 
contain a subject and predicate : — 

to love, on the right side, 

to have been loved, having seen them home, 

was loving, to be deplored. 

An adjunct (as, on the right side) is a prepositional 
phrase. Since a phrase may do the work of a noun, an 
adjective, or an adverb, we have noun phrases, adjective 
phrases, and adverbial phrases : — 

1. To write well requires care. 

2. Rowing a boat is good exercise. 

3. The desire to excel is praiseworthy. 

4. The man in the moon came down too soon. 



52 LANGUAGE AND GBAMMAB. 

5. The book lying on the table is mine. 

6. He is fond of fishing for trout. 

7. The little bird flew over the roof 

To write well and rowing a boat are the things of which 
something is asserted ; and therefore we may call them 
noun phrases. To excel, in the moon, and lying on 
the table, modify nouns ; therefore they are adjective 
phrases. Of fishing for trout modifies the adjective 
fond, and over the roof tells where, therefore they are 
adverbial phrases. 

Select the prepositional phrases in the sentences 
above. 

A phrase that does the work of a verb, is a verb 
phrase. Thus : — 

She goes to school Verb. 

She is going to school \ 

She has been going to school >■ Verb phrases. 

She should have been going to school . . . ) 

Verb phrases are often called verbs. Hence we may 
say that a verb is an asserting word or phrase. 

A clause is a group of related words containing sub- 
ject and predicate, and doing the work of a single part 
of speech. Thus : — 

1. How we shall succeed is a question. 

2. " / will try " has wrought wonders. 

3. A pupil who tries will generally succeed. 

4. The fact that you were late is evident. 

5. He works that he may succeed. 

6. I will go when you are ready. 

In sentences 1 and 2, How we shall succeed and I will 
try are clauses of which something is said ; and there- 
fore each does the work of a noun. In 3 and 4, the 
clauses who tries and that you were late modify nouns, — 



EQUIVALENTS. 53 

showing what pupil, what fact; therefore each is an 
adjective. The clause in 5, that he may succeed, tells 
why, and that in 6, when you are ready, tells when ; 
therefore they are adverbs. 

In each of the sentences there are two assertions. 
One is the subordinate, or dependent, assertion; the 
other is the principal, or independent assertion. The 
whole sentence is called complex. 

If neither assertion modifies the other, the whole 
sentence is called compound : — 

The boys read, and the girls write. 
He came, but he did not conquer. 

Being of the same rank with respect to each other, such 
assertions are co-ordinate. Sometimes the conjunction 
is omitted : — 

He raised his gun, the trigger clicked, and the hammer fell. 

The compound sentence is often contracted, giving, 
as we have seen, merely a compound subject or a com- 
pound predicate. This happens when two or more 
clauses contain a common term. Thus, instead of 
saying : — 

He escaped from Elba, and he landed in the South of France, 
we say : — 

He escaped from Elba, and landed in the South of France. 

Try to remember the following definitions : — 
1. A simple sentence is one that contains but one 
subject and one predicate : — 

Gold is yellow. ) 

He has not come. { (Declarative.) 

Have you returned so soon ? . . (Interrogative.) 

Go back to your place (Imperative.) 

How softly she walks ! . . . . (Exclamatory.) 



54 LANGUAGE AND GBAMMAR. 

2. A complex sentence is one that contains an inde- 
pendent clause and one or more subordinate clauses : — 

He was gone before I arrived (Declarative.) 

Why did you not come when you were called ? . (Interrogative.) 

Go where you can be happy (Imperative.) 

How happy we were when we were boys ! . . . (Exclamatory.) 

3. A compound sentence is one that contains two 
or more co-ordinate assertions : — 

It rained, and we returned (Declarative.) 

Has she gone, and will she return? (Interrogative.) 

Go, but do not stay (Imperative.) 

How poor he is, and how rich are they ! . . . (Exclamatory.) 

Tell whether the following are phrases, clauses, or 
sentences, giving the reason why : — 

1. After lesson time. 15. the advocate addressed the 

2. School is now over. court. 

3. Going home to dinner. 16. I did lift the key. 

4. After dinner we shall go to 17. To confess the truth. 

bathe. 18. War was declared. 

5. How warm the water is ! 19. Which I always keep holy. 

6. Plunge in. 20. To be a citizen of a free state. 

7. Not beyond your depth. 21. But the time had not come. 

8. Let us return. 22. Reflected by the water. 

9. Are you dressed already? 23. When the sunbeam struck 

10. In a hurry to get home. into the room. 

11. Having our lessons to pre- 24. On the opposite side. 

pare. 25. Where rabbits burrow. 

12. Good luck to you ! 26. That the dead are there. 

13. Having arranged his papers. 27. That good men often commit 

14. On behalf of his client. faults, cannot be denied. 

Tell whether the following sentences are simple, com- 
plex, or compound, stating why : — 

1. They breakfasted at nine o'clock. 

2. The bride kissed the goblet, the knight took it up. 

3. He dashed aside the falling tear. 



EQUIVALENTS. 55 

4. I came because you wished me to do so. » 

5. The enemy's squadrons broke and fled. 

6. No sounds of labor vexed the quiet air. 

7. He is the freeman whom the truth makes free ; and all are 

slaves besides. 

8. To kinder skies, where gentler manners reign, I turn. 

9. The reason is so clear that it needs no explanation. 

10. A word to the wise 
Will always suffice. 

11. Come again to-morrow, and we will give you more. 

12. The queen and the prince entered. 

Contract these compound sentences into simple 
ones : — 

1. The boy laughs, and the boy cries. 

2. The officer escaped, and his companion escaped. 

3. Neither Peter writes nor James writes. 

4. Nelson attacked the combined fleets, and Nelson defeated 

them. 

5. I wrote to you, therefore by writing my object was attained. 

6. He built a large house, but he did not build an elegant 

house. 

7. Meet your difficulties boldly, and meet your difficulties 

honestly. 

8. A piece of chalk will do, or a pencil will do. 

9. Come by the boat, or come by the train. 

Tell whether the italicized parts are phrases or 
clauses, and whether they are used as nouns, as adjec- 
tives, or as adverbs ; give reasons : — 

1. To be anxious is useless. 

2. That he is in error is certain. 

3. I like a rascal to be punished. 

4. What is done cannot be undone. 

5. Whether he meant what he said, is hard to determine. 

6. Walking to school is being injuriously superseded by riding 

thither in trains and omnibuses. 

7. The monkey with the long tail. 



56 LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

8. The monkey that has a long tail. 

9. A man without principle. 

10. A man of honor. 

11. The book belonging to my uncle. 

12. The business in ivhich 1 am engaged. 

13. The painter of that celebrated picture. 

14. This is an action to be deplored. 

15. It sings very sweetly. 

16. We are ready to die. 

Combine the statements of each set into one sentence 
and tell what kind of sentence it is : — 



1. 1 



The Vandals left the uplands. 

The Sueves left the uplands. 

The Burgundians left the uplands. 

They left early in the fifth century. 
( The Vandals and Sueves pressed into Spain. 
J They formed a kingdom. 

I This kingdom was in the northwest corner of Spain. 
I It did not last long. 

o j It did not sink. 
' 1 I held it. 
c The cow supplies us with milk. 
4. -I Cheese and butter are obtained from milk. 
I The cow is a very useful animal. 
Cotton is gathered from the pod of a plant. 
It is cleaned from the seed. 
It is sent to the manufacturer. 
He makes it into thread or yarn. 
He also makes it into cloth. 
He does this by the help of machinery. 

Make a story by answering the following questions : ■ 

Who? — Charlie and Margie. 

What relation were they? — Brother and sister. 

How old were they ? 

What did they do ? — They went to the woods. 

When? 



5. 



EQUIVALENTS. 57 

Why? 

Did they find many ? 

What kinds ? 

What did they do with them ? 

How long were they gone? 

Now tell to what class each sentence of your story 
belongs. 

Write a story from the following outline ; tell to what 
class each of your sentences belongs ; mention prepo- 
sitional phrases, and clauses; and tell what part of 
speech each such modifier is : — 

Charlie and Margie at the river ; Charlie fishing ; Margie 
gathering flowers; Charlie hears a scream; Margie has fallen into 
the river ; Charlie finds a branch of a tree ; very heavy ; puts 
forth all his strength ; pushes it tow r ards her ; it floats down to her ; 
seizes it ; Charlie runs for help ; returns wdth his father ; jumps in 
and brings Margie to the shore ; is carried to the house ; soon 
recovers ; Charlie showed presence of mind. 

Pick out the verb words and verb phrases in the fol- 
lowing story : — 

A fox that had once lost his tail in a trap was not pleased that 
his companions should have tails while he w 7 as tail-less. So he 
called them all together and said, " Look at me, I am not burdened, 
as you are, with a long bushy mass that serves no purpose except 
to clean the ground behind you. You will never beat me in a race 
as long as you bear this burden, and I do not bear it. If you are 
wise, you will no longer wear these useless weights; and I can 
show you how to cut them off in a moment." The younger foxes 
listened admiringly, and were all of them ready to cut off their 
tails. But a w T ise old fox got up and said, " That is all very well, 
Mr. Tail-less ; but you have not yet told us how you came to cut 
off your tail, and I will frankly admit I greatly suspect a trap had 
something to do with it. At all events, you did not find out that 
a tail so encumbered you while you had a tail, and I shall always 
believe that, if ever your tail grows again, you will not cut it off." 



58 



LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR, 



Diagram the following sentences : — 
1. To steal is base. 

(""To steal 
is \ base 



2. To be or not to be is the question- 
To be 

: O 



] 



to be | not 
is \ question | the 



3. The train started before sunrise. 

train | The 

started I before sunrise 



4. The train of forty freight-cars started before the sun rose. 

(The 

( of freight-cars | forty 
sun | the 



train 

started | before 



5. The sun rose and the train started. 

Tsun | The 
[rose 

15 

("train | the 
I started 

6. That he will succeed in his enterprise is quite certain. 

That 
The 

[_will succeed | in enterprise | his 
is \ certain | quite 

Note. — Any introductory word, like that in the preceding sen- 
tence, is underscored in the diagram. 



EQUIVALENTS. 



59 



7. His reply was that he would return to Boston because he had 
failed in business. 



reply J His 



was \ 



that 
he 

would return 



to Boston 

because 



he 

had failed | in business 



8. The infirmities of nature are common. 

9. I will go, since you are afraid. 

10. It stood by the river of the tree of life. 

11. Are you going to the city or to the country? 

12. Tarry till I come. 

13. Why he left so suddenly is not clear. 

14. Her answer was, " Seven are we." 

15. The queen entered, and the prince followed. 

16. No flowers are seen in the garden, and every leaf has gone 

from the trees. 

17. The round harvest moon has risen before the sun has set. 



QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 

1. What is an equivalent, as the term is used in grammar? 

2. What is a phrase ? 

3. How many kinds of phrases are there ? Name them. 

4. Explain the difference between a clause and a sentence. 

5. For what parts of speech may a clause be used ? 

6. What is a simple sentence ? Give two examples. 

7. What is a complex sentence ? Give tw r o examples. 

8. Define a compound sentence, and give two examples. 



60 LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 



CHAPTER VI. 
Classes of Nouns. 

Each of the eight great classes of words may be 
divided into other classes. Suppose that three boys of 
your acquaintance are playing in the street, and that 
you wish to speak with one of them. If you say, 
" Come here, hoy," they may stop and look, but will not 
know which one is called, because hoy is a name com- 
mon to them all ; but if you say, " Come here, JRohert" 
they will know who is meant, and Rohert comes, be- 
cause this name distinguishes him from the others ; it 
is his proper name, and does not belong to the rest of 
the party, like the common name hoy. 

Again, if somebody says that he lives in a city, do 
you know where he lives ? You do not, because there 
are a great many cities. But if he says that he lives in 
Boston, you do know Where he lives, because Boston is 
the name of a particular city. 

Hence nouns are divided into two great classes, 
proper and common. 

A proper noun is a name given to some one particu- 
lar person, animal, place, or thing ; as, Franklin, Fido, 
Boston, Adirondacks. 

A common noun 1 is a name owned in common by 

1 Many common nouns can be further classified into : 1. Collective 

nouns ; 2. Abstract nouns ; 3. Material nouns ; 4. Verbal or participial nouns. 

A collective noun is the name of a number of individuals taken to- 



CLASSES OF NOUNS. 61 

all things of the same sort, kind, or class ; as, boy, dog, 
city, mountain. 

Pick out the nouns, tell whether they are common or 
proper, first giving the reason why. 

Model. — Frank left his book in the house. Frank is the name 
of an individual, therefore it is a proper noun. Book and house 
are names that may be applied to any one of a class or kind of 
things, therefore they are common nouns. 

1. God has made a star. 

2. He cut his finger with a sharp knife. 

3. Cows eat grass and give us milk. 

4. King Solomon built the temple of Jerusalem. 

5. This picture is taken from a painting by Dyce. 

6. A photograph is a picture made by the light of the sun. 

7. No hand of man could fashion so faithful a likeness. 

8. By the telegraph we send messages with the quickness of 
lightning to distant places. 

9. In August we had two weeks' vacation. It was about this 
time I became a member of the Bivermouth Centipedes, a secret 
society composed of twelve of the Temple Grammar School 
boys. 

10. I never had any more trouble with Conway. He and his 
friend, Seth Rogers, gave me a wide berth for many months. 

11. Telegraph lines now stretch across the Atlantic from the 
southwest corner of Ireland to the island of Newfoundland and 
the continent of America. 

gether and spoken of as a single object ; as, army, fleet, nation, court, 
jury, congregation, society, flock, committee. 

An abstract noun is the name of a quality or property of some object, 
considered apart from the object to which it belongs. Thus, chalk is 
white, solid, rough or smooth, useful, etc. These words tell us of what 
sort. The names of these qualities are ivhiteness, solidity, roughness or 
smoothness, usefulness, etc. 

A material noun is the name of a material substance; as, iron, brass, 
zinc, copper, icheat, clay, tea, brandy, water, etc. 

A verbal noun is the name of an action or state of being. It includes 
the present infinitive and the participial infinitive; as, reading, giving, 
walking, etc. 



62 LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAB. 

12. The Earl of Leicester put himself at the head of these Lon- 
doners and other forces and followed the king to Sussex, where he 
lay in camp with his army. 

13. For nine years I spent much time in the homes of the work- 
ing people on the East Side, in the lower part of New York City. 

14. The troops fell back and the enemy were in close pursuit, 
when Sheridan arrived from Winchester. 

Name the adjectives in the preceding sentences ; also, 
the adjective phrases. 

Make sentences containing the following proper 
nouns : — 

Sunday. 

Monday. Thursday. 

Tuesday. Friday. 

Wednesday. Saturday. 

New Year's Day. Declaration of Independence. Easter. 

Fourth of July. Christmas. Thanksgiving Day. 



January. 


April. 


July. 


October. 


February. 


May. 


August. 


November. 


March. 


June. 


September. 


December. 



What is the difference between Helen and girl; be- 
tween Bible and look; between states and United 
States ? 

There may be several words in a name ; as, James 
Russell Lowell, Declaration of Independence, Arabian 
Nights. 

The full name of a person is made up of the Chris- 
tian name, or that given to each child, and the family 
name. A long time ago a father was called a sire; and 
because the family name is the father's name, it was 
called the sire-name. This came to be written, first 
sz'rname ; then surname. 

The first letter of a word is called its initial. Some- 
times the initials are used instead of the name of a 



CLASSES OF NOUNS. 



63 



person ; as, H. W. L. for Henry Wadsworth Longfellow. 
Often the surname is written, and the initials of the 
rest of the name are used ; as, B. Franklin, R. W. Emer- 
son. Frequently the first name is written, and the initial 
only of the middle name is used ; as, John Gr. Whittier. 
Brief means short; to abbreviate a word is to shorten 

it: — 

Sept. for September ; N. Y. for New York. 

The shortened form of a word is called an abbrevia- 
tion. 

Make sentences containing the following abbreviations 
used before names of persons : — 



Capt., 


, Captain. 


Hon., 


Honorable. 


Col., 


Colonel. 


Mr., 


Mister. 


Com. j 


Commodore. 


Mrs., 


Mistress. 


Dr., 


Doctor. 


Prof., 


Professor. 


Gen., 


General. 


Rev., 


Reverend. 



Make sentences containing the following abbrevia- 
tions used after the names of persons. Thus : — 
He wrote to F. S. Ball, A.B. 



Esq., Esquire. 
Jr., Junior (younger). 
M.D., Doctor of Medicine. 
D.D., Doctor of Divinity. 
U.S.A., United States Army. 
M.C., Member of Congress. 



A.B., Bachelor of Arts. 

Ph.D., Doctor of Philosophy. 

P.M., Postmaster. 

Sr., Senior. 

LL.D., Doctor of Laws. 

M.A., Master of Arts. 



Learn to write correctly the following useful abbre- 
viations : — 



Co., County or Company. 

Jan., January. 

Feb., February. 

Mar., March. 

Apr., April. 

Aug., August, 



Sept., September. 
Oct., October. 
Nov., November. 
Dec, December. 
Inst., the present month. 
Ult., the past month. 



64 LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

Ave., Avenue. P.O., Post office. 

Supt., Superintendent. B.C., Before Christ. 

St., Street or Saint. A.D., In the year of our Lord. 

Mt., Mount. N.B., Note well. 

A.M., Forenoon. P.S., Postscript (written after). 

P.M., Afternoon. 

Note the following rules : — 

1. The first letter of every proper name should be 
a capital. 

2. A common name joined to a proper name as a 
part of it should begin with a capital letter; as, Hud- 
son River, Lake Erie. 

3. Use the period after every abbreviation. 

4. Put a period after each initial letter used for 
the whole name. 

Correct the errors in the following : — 

Here are frank and cor a they have their dog carlo with them 
frank was ten years old last november, and cora will be seven in 
august they are going away off on the cars to visit their uncle 
henry who lives in Albany n y do you not think they will have a 
good time what fun it would be to go with them 

QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 

1. Define a noun. 

2. Into what classes are nouns divided? 

3. Define a common noun ; a proper noun. 

4. Give examples of each. 

5. What is an abbreviation? 

6. Name five abbreviations which are used before names of per- 

sons ; five used after names of persons. 

7. What two rules can you give for the use of capital letters with 

nouns ? 

8. What mark of punctuation should follow every abbreviation ? 



MODIFICATIONS OF NOUNS. 65 



CHAPTER VII. 

Modifications of Nouns. 

You have learned that the meaning of a word may 
be changed by adding modifying words ; as, white man, 
black man, red man, snow man. But the meaning of a 
word is also changed by simply changing its form. 
Thus, in the man calls and the men call, man denotes 
one person, and men more than one. Notice that, in 
the preceding sentences, a change in the form of the 
noun subject calls for a change in the form of the verb 
predicate. Different degrees of height are expressed 
by tall, tallKn, tallvsT. To denote possession we say 
the lady's hat ; the ladies' 1 hats. Sometimes, without 
changing the form of a word or its meaning, we use it 
differently in a sentence, and in that way express a 
different idea. In the three sentences, — 

I, John, saw these things, 
John, shut the door, 
He struck John, 

the word John is the same in form and meaning, yet, in 
the first, its use is to denote the speaker ; in the second, 
to denote the one spoken to ; in the third, the one 
spoken of. 

These changes in the form, meaning, and use of 
words are called modifications. 



66 LANGUAGE AND GBAMMAB. 

Nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs are 
the five classes of words that have modifications. 

Nouns and pronouns have four modifications: person, 
gender, number, and case. 



PERSON. 

Person is that modification of a noun or pronoun 
which distinguishes the speaker, the one spoken to, and 
the person or thing spoken of. 

There are three persons : the first, the second, and 
the third. 

A noun in the first person denotes the one speaking; 
as, 2, John, saw these things. 

A noun in the second person denotes the one spoken 
to ; as, John, shut the door. 

A noun in the third person denotes the person or 
thing spoken of ; as, He struck John. 

In the following sentences tell which nouns denote 
the one speaking ; which, the one spoken to ; and which, 
the person or thing spoken of : — 

1. Aunt Hattie called to-day. 

2. Aunt Hattie, did you call me? 

3. My father has gone to town. 

4. I met Tom on the street ; his father has given him a horse. 

5. Father, will you buy me a horse sometime ? 

6. I, Paul, have written it. 

7. " Proud Templar," said the king, " behold the Royal Stand- 

ard of England floats over thy towers." 

8. I, Lord High Constable of England, arrest thee by order of 

Richard Plantagenet, here present. 

9. Laziness travels so slowly that poverty soon overtakes it. 
10. Cheerily then, my little man, 

Live and laugh as boyhood can. 



MODIFICATIONS OF NOUNS. 67 

GENDER. 

A few nouns change their form to show whether 
the object named is a male or a female. Thus : — 
The lion has a long mane. 
The lioness has no mane. 
The Emperor of Germany is dying. 
The Empress of India is growing old. 
A hero unknown to fame. 
Rowena is the heroine of one of Scott's novels. 

The word gender means kind or sex ; hence : — 

Gender is that modification of a noun or pronoun 
which distinguishes the names of objects in regard to 
sex. 

There are three genders : the masculine, the feminine, 
and the neuter. 

The masculine gender denotes the names for objects 
of the male sex ; as, man, boy, actor, lion, father, king. 

The feminine gender denotes the names for objects 
of the female sex; as, girl, woman, lioness, actress, 
mother, queen. 

The neuter gender denotes the names for objects 
without sex; as, river, booh, slate. Neuter means 
neither. 

Sometimes ess is added to the masculine form to form 
the feminine ; as, prince, princess. 

More often the feminine is a wholly different word 
from its corresponding masculine ; as, bog, girl. 

With most nouns, however, the same form is used for 
both sexes ; and words like poet, editor, doctor, author 
may refer to a person of either sex, just as do parent, 
child, friend, cousin. 

Put nouns of masculine gender in one column, and 
those of feminine gender in another : — 



68 LANGUAGE AND GBAMMAB. 

Abbot, abbess ; actor, actress ; Francis, Frances ; Jesse, Jessie ; 
bachelor, maid ; beau, belle ; monk, nun ; gander, goose ; admin- 
istrator, administratrix ; baron, baroness ; count, countess ; 
czar, czarina; don, donna; boy, girl; drake, duck; lord, lady; 
nephew, niece ; landlord, landlady ; gentleman, gentlewoman ; 
peacock, peahen ; duke, duchess ; hero, heroine ; host, hostess ; 
Jew, Jewess; man-servant, maid-servant; sir, madam; wizard, 
witch ; marquis, marchioness ; widow, widower ; heir, heiress ; 
Paul, Pauline. 

NUMBER. 

As you read these sentences, mention every noun 
or pronoun, and tell whether it denotes one or more 
than one : — 

1. Walter drove the horse. 

2. The gardener planted the trees at the gate. 

3. A lady bought some oranges. 

4. Frank persuaded Thomas to go. 

5. The wind blew the leaves across the lawn. 

6. Amos cut his finger with the knife. 

7. They take coal and iron out of the earth. 

8. Lucy erased the marks with a rubber. 

9. Oxen are grazing in the pasture. 

10. Birds sing among the branches. 

11. Oranges grow in Florida. 

12. Date palms also grow there, but the dates do not ripen. 

13. My uncle's library is full of books ; one of them is the story 

told by Marco Polo, the traveler, to his fellow-prisoner at 
Genoa. 

Number is a modification of a noun or pronoun to 
denote whether one object is meant or more than one. 

There are two numbers, the singular and the plural. 

A noun of the singular number denotes one object ; 
as, box, tree, man, lady. 

A noun of the plural number denotes more than one 
object; as, boxes, trees, men^ ladies. 



MODIFICATIONS OF NOUNS. 



69 



FORMATION OF THE PLURAL. 
Rule. — Most nouns form the plural by adding s to 
the singular. 

Write the plural of — 



book 


page 


letter 


scholar 


ball 


guide 


finger 


soldier 


arm 


lip 


tree 


friend 


shoe 


thought 


lad 


monarch 


ship 


king 


ram 


aunt 


bee 


sea 


rock 


hoof 


egg 


sigh 


lot 


window 


barn 


boy 



Exceptions. 

1. Nouns ending in s, x, z, sh, and ch (soft) form 
the plural by adding es to the singular. 

Write the plural of — 
fox 
sash 
lash 
brush 
glass topaz 

2. Nouns ending in y after a consonant form the 
plural by changing y to i and adding es to the singular. 

Note. — Nouns ending in y after a vowel follow the regular rule. 
Write the plural of — 



pass 
church 
gas 
box 



bush 


inch 


waltz 


wish 


tax 


adz 


cross 


ditch 


stitch 


dash 



day 


delay 


donkey 


valley 


pulley 


pony 


lady 


lily 


sky 


% 


story 


Sunday 


candy 


honey 


boy 


fancy 


baby- 


way 


monkey 


daisy 


joy 


navy 


study 


turkey 



3. Thirteen nouns ending in f form the plural by 
changing f to v and adding es to the singular. 

Write the plural of — 

sheaf leaf loaf beef 

staff thief calf half 

elf shelf self wolf 
wharf 

4. Three nouns ending in fe form the plural by 
changing f to v and adding s to the singular. 

wife knife life 



70 



LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 



5. The following nouns form the plural irregularly : — 
man, men ; foot, feet ; goose, geese ; tooth, teeth ; mouse, mice ; 

louse, lice ; ox, oxen ; child, children ; brother, brethren (or 
brothers) ; 1 woman, women ; die, dice (or dies) ; penny, pence (or 
pennies) . 

6. Letters, figures, and signs form the plural by 
adding *s. Thus : — 

Cancel the 9's. 

Do not make your r's and v's alike. 

Distinguish between your n's and u's. 

Tell the number of — 



ass 


ways 


teeth 


deer 


inches 


oxen 


pigeon 


tools 


token 


geese 


swine 


flies 


class 


box 


ashes 


happiness 


wealth 


woman 


tongs 


gold 


ice 


money 


news 


series 


folk 


gas 


wages 


poultry 



Substitute the plural for the singular, and the singu- 
lar for the plural, of each noun ; and make such other 
changes as the sense requires : — 

1. The little boy is good. 

2. Flowers are sweet. 

3. The little flowers are very sweet. 

4. Horses are animals. 

5. Good horses are very useful animals. 

6. The young ladies are very beautiful. 

7. You are a lazy bo^. 

8. The little children were intensely happy. 

9. Very old men are nearly always uneasy. 

10. How happy are the little birds ! 

11. The goose hissed at her. 

12. Where is the key? 



1 Note to the Teacher. — The meanings of these different plurals 
should be explained to the pupil. 



MODIFICATIONS OF NOUNS. 71 



CASE. 

1. The boy is well. 

2. I saw the boy. 

3. I went to the boy. 

4. The boy's parents are dead. 

In which sentence is boy the subject ? In which is it 
the object? In which is it the object of the preposi- 
tion ? In which does it denote possession ? In which 
sentence is the form of the word changed ? 

Case is that modification of a noun or pronoun which 
denotes its office in the sentence, or distinguishes its 
relation to some other w r orcl in the sentence. 

There are three cases : the nominative, the possessive, 
and the objective. 

The nominative case of a noun or pronoun denotes 
its office as subject or attribute complement; as, His 
name is Robert. 

The possessive case of a noun or pronoun denotes 
possession or ownership ; as, Robert's book is torn. 

The objective case of a noun or pronoun denotes its 
office as object of a verb or of a preposition; as, He 
struck Robert; Give the book to Robert. 

1. My sister Mary is at school. 

2. Give it to my brother John. 

3. St. Paul, the apostle, was beheaded. 

What two nouns in the first sentence name the same 
person ? In the second ? In the third ? You understand 
that the nouns, Mary, John, and apostle are used to tell 
which sister is meant, which brother is meant, and what 
St. Paul was. 



72 LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

A noun or pronoun used to explain another noun or 
pronoun is called an explanatory modifier. 

Rule. — An explanatory modifier is in the same 
case as the word it explains. 

Tell the case of each explanatory modifier in the fol- 
lowing : — 

1. Give this top to my brother Henry. 

2. Pizarro, the conqueror of Peru, was a Spaniard. 

3. Columbus, the discoverer of America, was born in Genoa, 

Italy, about 1435. 

4. We visited London, the capital of England. 

5. The poet Spenser lived in the reign of Elizabeth, Queen of 

England. 



FORMATION OF THE POSSESSIVE CASE. 

The possessive is the only case in which a change is 
made in the form of the noun. 

The possessive case of nouns is formed, in the singu- 
lar, by adding to the nominative the apostrophe (') and 
the letter s (*s) ; as, boy's, man's, lady's, child's, 
Charles's. 

The possessive case of nouns is formed, in the plural, 
by adding the apostrophe only, when the plural noun 
ends in s ; as, boys', ladies'. 

When the plural noun does not end in s, the posses- 
sive case is formed by adding the apostrophe and s to 
the nominative plural ; as, men's, children's. 



Vnte th 


e possessive singula 


r and thi 


3 possessive 


ral of — 










fox 


calf 


negro 


wolf 


hero 


tree 


wife 


goose 


foot 


knife 


clock 


army 


woman 


sheep 


author 


church 


turkey 


mouse 


baby 


sculptor 



MODIFICATIONS OF NOUNS. 73 

Change the possessive nouns to prepositional 
phrases : — 

1. Children's manners show their training. 

2. Your money will be used for Ireland's relief. 

3. Is there a proverb about kings' daughters ? 

4. Greenland's warm climate is its greatest treasure. 

5. Winter's rude tempests are gathering now. 

6. Wisdom's ways are ways of pleasantness. 
* 7. You'll find hornets' nests there. 

8. The Hudson's banks are romantic. 

9. The robin's arrival is a sign of spring. 

10. Australia's eastern coast is rugged. 

11. Elephants' tusks are ivory. 

12. Washington's home was Mount Vernon. 

13. Deer's hoofs are divided into two parts. 

Change italicized parts to possessive nouns without 
changing the sense : — 

1. Gloves suitable for ladies are sold here. 

2. Gloves belonging to a lady were found. 

3. He is freed from the troubles of life. 

4. Pity the sorrows of a poor old man. 

5. The boat that is owned by my brother is gaily painted. 

6. The watch that my father owns keeps perfect time. 

7. The crown that is worn by Queen Victoria is set with costly 

jewels. 

8. The poem "Evangeline," that was written by Longfellow, is 

very beautiful. 

9. The victory that Washington gained at Trenton gave joy to 

Americans. 

DECLENSION. 

The declension of a noun or pronoun is the regular 
arrangement of its cases in the two numbers. Thus: — 





LADY. 


MAN. 


FRIEND. 




Singular. Plural. 


Singtdar. Plural. 


Singular. Plural. 


Nom. 


lady ladies 


man men 


friend friends 


Pos. 


lady's ladies' 


man's men's 


friend's friends' 


Obj. 


lady ladies 


man men 


friend friends 



74 LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

USES OF NOUNS. 
In the expression of thought nouns may be used in 
ten different ways. A noun may be — 

1. A subject of a verb ; as, The waters slept. 

2. A predicate attribute 1 (or attribute complement); 
as, The groves were God's first temples. 

3. An object complement ; l as, The oak shall send 
his roots abroad and pierce thy mold. 

4. An object of a preposition ; as, The storm passed 
over the city. 

5. An objective complement; as, We call Chaucer 
the Father of English Poetry. 

6. An explanatory modifier (appositive) ; as, The 
Franks, a warlike people of Germany, gave their name 
to France. 

7. A possessive modifier ; as, We watched the eagle's 
flight. 

8. An independent word, by address ; as, Carlo, 
come here ; by exclamation ; as, The wind ! how it 
roars ! ; by pleonasm ; as, The boy, oh ! where was he ? ; 
by absolute construction ; as, A bridge having been con- 
structed, the Romans crossed the Rhine. 

9. An adverb, to denote time, place, manner, dis- 
tance, weight, measure, value, or quantity ; as, It is 
worth a dollar a pound ; We rode home that way ; He 
can walk five miles an hour ; It weighs a ton; The room 
is ten feet long. In such constructions the noun may be 
called the object of a preposition understood; as, of a 
dollar for a pound ; to home by that way ; through five 
miles in an hour ; etc. For this reason, nouns used ad- 
verbially are said to be in the objective case. 

1 For explanation of predicate attribute and object complement, see 
page 113. 



MODIFICATIONS OF NOUNS. 75 

10. An adjective ; as, a gold watch, a steel pen, 
country customs, city life, garden wall, sea monster, 
marine plants, etc. 

PARSING OF THE NOUN. 

A noun is parsed by stating : — 

Class. — Common, proper ; collective, abstract, mate- 
rial, or verbal, and why. 

Person. — First, second, or third, and why. 
Gender. — Masculine, feminine, or neuter, and why. 
Number. — Singular or plural, and why. 
Case. — Nominative, possessive, or objective, and why. 

Model. — Your booh will be perfectly safe. 

Book is a common noun, because it is a class name ; 
neuter gender, because it is the name of something 
without sex; third person, because it denotes the thing 
spoken of; singular number, because it denotes but 
one ; nominative case, because it is used as the subject 
of the verb will he. 

QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 

1. What is meant by modification? 

2. How many modifications have nouns and pronouns ? 

3. What is meant by person ? 

4. How many persons are there ? 

5. Define first person ; second person ; third person. 

6. Give an example of a noun in the first person ; in the second 

person ; in the third person. 

7. What is gender ? 

8. Define masculine gender ; feminine gender ; neuter gender. 

9. How is the feminine gender distinguished from the masculine? 

10. What is meant by number ? 

11. Define singular number; plural number. 

12. Give the regular rule for the formation of the plural. 



76 



LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 



13. How do nouns ending in s, x, z, sh, and ch form their plural ? 

Nouns ending in / and fe f Nouns ending in y after a con- 
sonant ? Nouns ending in y after a vowel ? 

14. Give the rule for the formation of the plural of letters, 

figures, etc. 

15. What is case? 

16. When is a noun or pronoun in the nominative case? In the 

objective case? In the possessive case? 

17. In what case is an explanatory modifier ? 

18. Give the rule for forming the possessive singular; for forming 

the possessive plural. 

19. In how many ways may nouns be used? Illustrate. 



SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW. 
Noun. 



1. Classes 



2. Modifications 



3. Uses 



r Proper -^ 
•j °r \. 
I Common J 



Person 



Gender , 
Number , 

, Case . . , 



Subject of a verb, 
Predicate attribute, 
Object complement, 
Object of preposition, 
Objective complement, 
Appositive, 
Possessive, 
Independent, 
Adverbial, 
Adjective. 



Collective, 

Abstract, 

Material, 

Verbal. 

First, 

Second, 

Third. 

Masculine, 

Feminine, 

Neuter. 

Singular, 

Plural. 

Nominative, 

Possessive, 

Objective. 



CLASSES OF PRONOUNS. 77 



CHAPTER VIII. 

Classes of Pronouns. 

A person speaking of himself does not use his name, 
but one of the words standing for his name, — I, me : — 

1 asked Ida to go with me. 

When a speaker joins himself with others, he uses we, 

us : — 

We asked Ida to go with us. 

In speaking to another person or to others, we com- 
monly say you : — 

Ida, will you go with us ? 

In speaking of a male person we avoid a too frequent 
repetition of the person's name by the use of he, him : — 

I asked him to go, and he consented. 

In speaking of a female person, we may use she, her : — 
I asked her to go, and she consented. 

In speaking of a thing neither male nor female, we may 

use it : — 

John took the apple and ate it. 

In speaking of more than one person or thing, we may 
use they, them : — 

They saw John ; John saw them. 
Because these little words have different forms to 



78 



LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 



denote the person speaking, the person spoken to, and 
the person or thing spoken of, they are called 



Personal Pronouns. 

A pronoun that denotes the person speaking, is in the 
first person, — I, me, we, us. 

A pronoun that denotes the person spoken to, is in 
the second person, — you (and sometimes thou, thee, ye). 

A pronoun that denotes the person or thing spoken 
of, is in the third person, — he, she, it, they, them. 

The words me, you (or thee), him, her, us, it, and 
them, take the place of nouns used as objects. 

The words I, ive, you, thou, ye, he, she, they, and it, 
take the place of nouns used as subjects or predicate 
eomplements (attributes). 

Each pronoun has a corresponding form that denotes 
ownership, which is used as an adjective, — my, thy, his, 
her, its, our, your, their. As predicate adjectives, my 
and thy change to mine and thine ; her, our, your, and 
their change to hers, ours, yours, and theirs : — 



This is > 



This book is 



my 
thy 
her 



your 
their 



thine, 
hers, 
ours, 
yours, 
V theirs. 



boo: 



Select the pronouns; tell whether they are of the 
first, second, or third person, and why ; whether they 



CLASSES OF PRONOUNS. 79 

denote one or more than one ; whether they are used as 
objects, subjects, or predicate complements ; and which 
are adjectives : — 

1. Will you go with us ? 

2. They have gone and left us. 

3. They were glad to see you. 

4. Do you know where their house is ? 

5. Did you see the horse shake its head ? 

6. I left her book on your desk. 

7. We should improve our time. 

8. I will shoot the dog if it bites me. 

9. Tell us what we shall see. 

10. John says he did not hear you. 

11. We brought it with us. 

12. He found my book. 

13. Will you let me go ? 

14. She deserves great praise for her work. 

15. I say ye mistake me much, if such is your opinion. 

16. Thou knowest him not. 

17. Leave the books, and I will send them along with ours. 

18. Your work is finished ; hers is not. 

19. If the book were mine, I should read it often. 

20. I am much better, I thank you, sir. 

21. Carrie and her cousin came to visit me ; they brought all 

their toys with them. 

22. We are going to your house ; our dog is with us. 

23. Ask thy Father in heaven to assist thee. 

24. The bird hides its nest in the grass, that naughty boys may 

not find it. 

25. James says he has a little pony which his uncle gave him. 

26. Where are you going, boys? May we go with you? 

27. Thou art my beloved Son ; this day have I begotten thee. 

Fill the blanks with suitable pronouns : — 

1. Where are the children? are gone to take a walk. 

2. My brother is from home, and will not be back for a 

week. 

3. am studying diligently. 



80 LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

4. Where is the dog? There is, has hurt foot. 

5. Did see sister ? No ; was away when 

called. 

6. Where is aunt ? Is coming to-night ? 

7. am sorry that cannot come ; but is so ill that 

cannot leave bed. 

The noun for which a pronoun stands is called its 
antecedent. The word is from ante, meaning before, 
and cedere, meaning to go. The antecedent usually goes 
before the pronoun ; but often it is not in the sentence, 
being some word understood. 

Pick out each pronoun, name its antecedent, and show 
in what respects the two agree : — 

1. Indians are treacherous in their character. 

2. James struck his brother with his fist. 

3. There goes Mary with her satchel of books. 

4. Harry has a little carriage, and he often rides in it. 

5. The old hen calls her young ones when she finds a worm for 

them. 

6. A scorner seeketh wisdom, and findeth it not. 

7. The snow spreads its white sheet over the whole country. 

8. The book is so old that it has lost its cover. 

9. Amy, will you get your doll ? 

10. A king cannot take his crown with him. 

11. Men must reap the things they sow. 

12. Augustus Caesar boasted that he found Rome built of brick, 

and left it marble. 

There are some longer pronouns, made from the sim- 
ple personal pronoun by adding the noun self to denote 
one person or thing, and the noun selves to denote more 
than one. These are called compound personal pro- 
nouns. They are — 

myself herself ourselves 

thyself itself yourselves 

himself yourself themselves 



CLASSES OF PBONOUNS. 81 

Observe their use in the following : — 

1. He lost himself in the wood. 

2. I hope, madam, you find yourself better this morning. 

3. I myself saw it. 

4. She told me herself. 

Point out the subject and object complement of the 
verb lost ; of the verb find. Notice that in each sentence 
the two pronouns have the same antecedent. Com- 
pound personal pronouns so used are called reflexives. 

Omit the compound personal pronouns in sentences 3 
and 4, and note the effect. These pronouns so used 
mark emphasis. 

Write sentences containing compound personal pro- 
nouns, tell how each pronoun is formed, of what person 
it is, and whether it is reflexive or used for emphasis. 

Relative Pronouns. 

Now let us make two statements, such as the follow- 
ing : — 

He sent for the girl. She immediately came. 

These can be united thus : — 

He sent for the girl, and she immediately came. 

Or we can say : — 

He sent for the girl, who immediately came. 

In this sentence the word who stands for girl, and is 
therefore a pronoun. But it also joins the two state- 
ments, and is therefore a conjunction. » 
We may say : — 

This is the boy. You called him. 

But these simple statements may be made into one 
sentence by the use of that or whom : — 

This is the boy \ that l you called. 
( whom J 



82 LANGUAGE AND GBAMMAB. 

Suppose our sentences to be : — 

This is the boy. His father was killed. 
We may unite these by ivhose : — ■ 

This is the boy whose father was killed. 
Again : — 

We are like flowers. They bloom and die. 
These may be united by which : — 

We are like flowers, which bloom and die. 

The words ivho, whose, whom, that, and which (and 
sometimes as, in connection with such, or same), when 
used in this waj^, are called relative pronouns. They 
are so called because they relate, or carry us back, to 
some noun or pronoun going before. They also join a 
modifying clause to the antecedent. 

The clauses introduced by relative pronouns, since 
they relate to or modify nouns, are always adjective 
clauses. 

Who and whom refer to persons. 

Which is applied to inferior animals or things without 
life. 

Whose and that are applied to both persons and things. 

Sometimes the antecedent is not expressed, or rather 
it is included in the relative : — 

He found ivhathe wished. 
Whoever does it will be punished. 

Th^se sentences are equal to : — 

He found the thing which he wished. 
Any person who does it will be punished. 

The words ivhat, whoever, ivhatever, whichever, when 
thus used, are called compound relatives. 

Name each relative pronoun and its antecedent ; tell 
what clause it joins to its antecedent ; as what part of 



CLASSES OF PBONOUJVS. 83 

speech the clause is used, and why; whether the rela- 
tive stands for one thing or more than one; whether it 
stands for the speaker, the person spoken to, or the per- 
son or thing spoken of ; whether it is object, subject, or 
attribute complement : — 

1. The person who does no good does harm. 

2. He studies what is useful. 

3. The bird which sang so sweetly has flown. 

4. The boy was saved by a boat that was passing. 

5. That is the man whose house was burned. 

6. Have you sold the goods which you bought? 

7. I took what he gave me. 

8. The man whom we saw to-day is the same that met us yes- 

terday. 

9. It was the darkest night that I ever saw. 

10. God, who created all things, whose we are, and whom we 
serve, is eternal. 

Put in suitable pronouns : — 

1. It was not who called. 

2. I think it is . 

3. All were saved but . 

4. Who rang the bell ? rang the bell. 

5. It was who broke the window. 

6. It is . 

7. Are you taller than ? 

8. John and will go. 

9. John found the book had lost. 

10. Have read lesson ? 

11. When does intend to come? 

12. This boy says didn't do it. 

13. James allowed to read the letter sent . 

14. Annie brought little brother to school yesterday, but 

refused to come with to-day. 

15. The boy fell off the wall told mother that 

felt no pain . 

16. When have finished this letter must send to 

the post-office. 



84 LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

Use relative pronouns to combine simple sentences 
into complex ones : — 

1. The seed has become a tree. It was planted by Edward. 

2. Tea was unknown in this country a few centuries ago. We 

could now scarcely dispense with it. 

3. Cotton is a soft, woolly substance. It grows round the seeds 

of a plant. 

4. The city of Rome is situated on the River Tiber. The city 

is about sixteen miles distant from the sea. 

5. The snow fell during the night. It melted before morning. 

6. The eldest son of Paul was Alexander. Paul was succeeded 

by Alexander. 

7. The sea dikes in Holland are generally about thirty feet in 

height. They are erected all along the coast. 

8. Nero's whole reign was a scene of bloodshed. He set Rome 

on fire for mere amusement. 

9. Charles was early inured to hardships. He could endure 

cold and hunger without inconvenience. 

10. The oak reproached a reed. The reed grew by the side of 

a stream. 

11. We saw a ship in the harbor. It sailed for London. 

Analyze and diagram the following sentences : — 
1. The boy who brought it is waiting below. 

This is a complex declarative sentence, because it 
consists of a principal assertion and a dependent clause. 
The principal assertion is The boy is waiting below ; who 
brought it is the clause. The naked subject of the 
whole sentence is boy ; the naked predicate is is waiting. 
The modifiers of the subject are the, and the relative 
clause who brought it. The points out, and who brought 
it tells what boy. The boy ivho brought it is the complete 
subject. The predicate is modified by below, an adverb 
telling where. Is waiting below is the complete predi- 
cate. 



CLASSES OF PBONOUNS. 



85 



The 
boy | ^ ["who 

I _brought || it 
. is waiting | below 

As relative pronouns connect, they are underscored 
as in the diagram. 

2. The gentleman whom you met is my father. 

f The ; 



gentleman | -{ 
is \ father | my 



you 

met || whom 



3. He who brings the treasure that I prize most, will receive the 
reward of which he is worthy. 

who 

f the 



He 



brings || treasure 



prize || that 
(most 
the 



will receive || reward 



"he 
is \ worthy 

(of which 

4. He who runs may read. 

5. The rings which surround Saturn can be seen with a tele- 

scope. 

6. The boy whom the master called has come. 

7. The books belong to the girl whose name is marked upon 

them. 

8. This is the rat that ate the malt that lay in the house that 

Jack built. 

9. The boys and girls said to the master, " We will hereafter 

do what is right." 

10. A religion whose origin is divine, cannot teach false 

doctrines. 

11. The person for whom you are doing so much, does not ap- 

preciate your kindness. 



86 LANGUAGE AND GBAMMAB. 



Interrogative Pronouns. 

When I say, Who comes here? for what does who 
stand ? It is therefore what part of speech ? What 
kind of a sentence is Who comes here ? Then what 
kind of a pronoun is who ? 

Who, whose, whom, which, and what, when used in 
asking questions, are called interrogative pronouns. 

Who goes there? With whom did you go? 

I know who goes there. Which of you can do this ? 

Whose is this ? What do you wish ? 
Whom do you call ? 

Who, whose, and whom refer to persons only. 
What refers to animals or things. 
Which refers to persons, animals, or things. 
Whose, which, and what are also used as interrogative 
adjectives. 

Whose book is that ? 

Which flower will you have? 

What man could foresee this? 

Fill the blanks with interrogative pronouns : — 

1. called me? 

2. did you send for ? 

3. is it? 

4. shall we fear ? 

5. Of shall we be afraid ? 

6. do you prefer? 

7. will go with me ? 

8. To are you speaking ? 

Make complex interrogative sentences, using who, 
whom, ivhich, and what. Thus : — 

Which is the cat that killed the rat? 

Who that knew him could believe this story? 



9. 


is your teacher? 


10. 


In class are you ? 


11. 


By are you taught ? 


12. 


house is that ? 


13. 


By is it occupied? 


14. 


came with you? 


15. 


AVith did you come ? 


16. 


For did you ask ? 



CLASSES OF PBOJSTOUNS. 87 

Make three simple and three complex interrogative 
sentences, using whose, which, and ivhat as adjectives. 

Demonstrative Pronouns. 

Observe carefully the object-complements in each of 
the following sentences : — 

If you take this, I will take that. 
If you carry these, I will carry those. 

Of what part of speech is each italicized word? Why? 
Which denote something near? Which denote some- 
thing farther away ? Which denote but one thing, and 
which more than one ? 

The words this, these, that, and those, when used as 
above, are called demonstrative pronouns. They point 
out, or direct attention to, the thing or things spoken of. 

These words cease to be pronouns as soon as they 
become modifiers. They are then adjectives. Thus: — 

That man will not fight. The wing of this bird is hurt. 

These people are foreigners. Did you see those Italians ? 

That, you remember, is often a mere conjunction : — - 

He said that he would go. 

The opinion that it was too late, prevailed. 

Write three sentences containing demonstrative pro- 
nouns. Write three sentences showing these pronouns 
used as adjectives. 

Tell what each that is in the following sentences : — 

1. When you find the passage that I want, show it to that lady. 

2. That bears a strong resemblance to the picture of Holyrood 

Palace that you showed me. 

3. Where is the girl that finished that drawing that hangs on 

that wall ? 

4. Give me that book, that one that you have in your hand. 



88 LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

5. I did not know that he had come. 

6. Bless them that persecute you. 

7. I heard that you had been sick. 

8. The man that owns that house says that he will sell it. 

9. It was a violent wind that blew down that tree. 
10. I have sold the horse that you sent me. 

Put ivho or ivhich instead of the relative that in the 
preceding. 

Fill the blanks with suitable pronouns : — 

1. The carriage we came in has returned. 

2. The man you saw was my friend. 

3. The book I borrowed has been returned. 

4. I will gladly lend you the book you sent for. 

5. The lady spoke to me is my sister. 

6. The scholar studied most did the best work. 

7. James has the knife his father gave him. 

8. The cow the farmer bought yesterday is in the field. 

9. It was Dr. William Harvey first proved the circulation 

of the blood. 

10. Martin Luther, by labors the Reformation was chiefly 

brought about, died in the year 1546. 

11. Jerusalem was the city to — ■ — Crusaders bent their course. 

12. They stood on a hill overlooked a beautiful plain. 

13. The men fcfr they waited soon came in sight. 

14. We met the blind boy and the dog you told us of. 

15. We gave the boy three cents was all we had. 



Indefinite Pronouns. 
When the words — 



each 


some 


any 


none 


aught 


either 


few 


many 


both 


such 


neither 


all 


one 


other 


naught 



stand for names, they are called indefinite pronouns, 
because they do not point out or particularize. 



CLASSES OF PRONOUNS. 89 

Examine the italicized words, and tell which are pro- 
nouns, classifying them, and which are adjectives, giving 
the reasons : — 

1. All men are mortal. 

2. All must perish. 

3. Much remains to be done. 

4. He wastes much. 

5. He is heard for his " much speaking." 

6. The little ones are asleep. 

7. He could do but little. 

8. Many will worship him. 

9. Each hour should be improved. 

10. Many will be called, butfetv will be chosen. 

11. Many men of many minds. 

12. Either will suit. 

13. Both stories are false. 

14. Neither officer was to blame. 

15. There is little hope for such. - 

16. Reward each. 

17. Did you see both f 

18. Those letters should be mailed. 

19. Such cases do not often occur. 

20. One man's meat is another* s poison. 

21. These are too slow, those are too fast. 

22. What shall I bring you? 

23. She had no fortune, but that of my father was ample. 

24. One shall be chosen, and another left. 



EXERCISES FOR REVIEW. 

Supply suitable pronouns : — 

1. Every person should remember that may need help 

some day. 

2. Let every pupil be ready to take slate with . 

3. A wise teacher requires boys and girls to obey . 

4. The bird and mate are in the tree. 

5. A writer wishes to know what will please those for whom 

writes. 



90 LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

6. This is the boy broke the window. 

7. We bathed in the lake waters are as clear as crystal. 

8. The kind words you have spoken will never be for- 

gotten. 

9. They seek me early shall find me. 

10. Happy is the man walketh not in the counsel of the 

ungodly. 

11. She is a person everybody respects. 

Put in compound personal pronouns : — 

1. The travelers refreshed at a cool spring. 

2. She must work, and take care of . 

3. You ought to be ashamed of . 

4. She supported her mother and by her work. 

5. I behaved as well as you behaved . 

6. The man has injured by the course he has pursued. 

7. If a house be divided against that house cannot stand. 

8. The teacher could not explain the example. 

9. The pupils behave remarkably well. 

10. If we exert we shall surely win. 

Write sentences illustrating the use of who, which, 
what, and that as two different parts of speech. 

Write four sentences about each of the following 
things, using object complements in two of them, and 
adjective complements in the other two : — 

ink rain monkey moon dog 

Diagram the following sentences : — 

1. The planet Jupiter has four moons. 

2. Living toads are sometimes found in the middle of huge 

rocks. 

3. Pride in dress or in beauty betrays a weak mind. 

4. The city of London is situated on the River Thames. 

5. The vessels carrying the blood from the heart are called 

arteries. 

6. The book prized above all other books is the Bible. 

7. Rivers west of the Rocky Mountains empty into the Pacific 

Ocean. 



MODIFICATIONS OF PRONOUNS. 



91 



CHAPTER IX. 



Modifications of Pronouns. 

DECLENSION. 



FIRST PERSON. 

Singular. Plural. 

Norn. I, we, 

our or 
ours, 

Obj. me ; us. 



Personal Pronouns. 

SECOND PERSON— 

common form. 
Singular. Plural. 



SECOND PERSON— 

old form. 
Singular. Plural. 



PosJ m ? or 
( mine, 



yon, 
your or 
yours, 
you; 



you, 
your or 
yours, 
you. 



thou, 
thy or 
thine, 
thee ; 



ye or you, 
your or 
yours, 
you. 



THIRD PERSON — MaS. 

Singular. Plural. 
Nora, he, they, 

( their or 
\ theirs, 
Obj. him ; them. 



Pos. his, 



third person — Fern. 
Singular. Plural. 
she, they, 

her or their or 
hers, theirs, 
her; them. 



third person— Neut. 

Singular. Plural. 

it, 



its, 
it; 



they, 
their or 
theirs, 
them. 



Compound Personal Pronouns. 



FIRST PERSON. 

Singular. Plural. 

Nom. and Nom. and 
Obj. Obj. 

ye or r ourse i veSe 
ourself ; > 



SECOND PERSON. 



Singular. 

Nom. and 

Obj. 



Plural. 

Nom. and 

Obj. 



thyself or ) , 

r yourserv 
yourself; > 



THIRD PERSON. 

Singular. Plural. 
Nom. and Nom. and 

Obj. Obj. 

himself ; ~) 
herself; ' th - em " 



itself ; 



selves. 



Relative Pronouns. 



Sing, and Plu. 
Nom. who, 
Pos. whose, 
Obj. whom. 



Sing, and Plu. 
which, 
whose, 
which. 



Sing, and Plu. 
that, 
whose, 
that. 



Sing, and Plu. 
what, 

what. 



The interrogative pronouns are declined in the same 
manner as the relatives of the same form. 



92 LANGUAGE AND GBAMMAR. 



Tell the person, numbei 


*, and case 


of each of the fol 


lowing pronouns : — 








them our 


that 


thy 


him 


your whose 


whom 


mine 


my 


whichever their 


themselves 


what 


her 


herself thine 


yourself 


it 


which 



Write sentences containing the following pronouns, 
and tell the number and case of each one : — 



whichever 


themselves 


himself 


whom 


whoever 


theirs 


whomever 


their 


thy 



Give the person, gender, number, and case of each 
pronoun in the following sentences : — 

1. Is your friend with you? 

2. My friend, you are very kind. 

3. You are not your own master. 

4. Children, you must be quiet. 

5. Boys, you are making a noise. 

6. Your father sent it to my care. 

7. I asked him for his address. 

8. He wanted yours and mine. 

9. Does your sister know them? 

10. We must inform our friends. 

11. They will forget us. 

12. It is I. 

13. We are frail. 

14. You and he are strong. 

15. Few are stronger. 

16. Who knocks? 

17. To whom shall they go ? 

18. Is this the house which he built? 

19. Which are they? 

20. Did you call us ? 

21. That on the hill is his. 

22. Which is yours ? 

23. Thou art she whom he calls. 



MODIFICATIONS OF PRONOUNS. 93 

24. Bring what he wants. 

25. What is his name ? 

26. I cannot tell what his name is. 

27. I that speak unto you am he. 

28. Many are called, but few are chosen. 

29. I have none to go with me. 

30. We respect those that respect themselves. 

Supply suitable pronouns, telling the person, gender, 
number, and case of each : — 

1. The baby was playing, and would not go to sleep. 

2. I warmed the bird, and* then flew away. 

3. The wood was dry, so burned well. 

4. will rain. 

5. snows. 

6. art God, and besides there is none. 

7. He is taller than . 

8. I am younger than . 

9. spoke to you. 

10. did he say? 

11. did you speak? 

12. did you see ? 

13. This is the man I saw. 

14. did he praise ? 

15. Did he praise you and ? 

16. The boy we loved has left us. 

17. These are the girls and boys we saw skating. 

Supply every pronoun that may be used as subject or 
complement, telling the case as complement, and why : — 

am expecting . 

am sure that will come. 

is going home. 

are not coming to-day. 

art with me. 

It is . 

Who struck ? 

The fault is . 



94 LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

Select the proper relative and tell its case : — 

which *\ 

1. The girl \ that V was here has returned, 
who J 
whom >| 

2. The book ^ that y you saw is mine, 
which J 

, which ^ 

I that I 

3. The man \ , y was hurt is my father. 

I whom J 
, who v. 

I which i 

4. Such a boy 4 [> he is will succeed. 

I that J 
Change singular nouns to plural, plural to singular, 
and make such other changes as are necessary : — 

1. Let the girl answer for herself. 

2. The soldiers must obey their officers. 

3. Every animal has some weapon with which to defend itself. 

4. The birds build their nests in the trees. 

5. An eagle builds her nest on the top of a high rock. 



EXERCISES FOR REVIEW. 

Use each of these words as a pronoun and as an 
adjective : — 

some one this which 

all that other what 

Use each of these words as a preposition and as an 
adverb : — 

above below near around 

Use as an adjective and as an adverb : — 

yonder daily nearer more less 

Use each of these words as a noun and as a verb : — 
bridle value will second pity 



MODIFICATIONS OF PRONOUNS. 95 



PARSING OF THE PRONOUN. 

A pronoun is parsed by stating : — 
Class. — Personal, relative, interrogative, demonstra- 
tive, or indefinite. 

Person. — First, second, or third, and why. 

Gender. — Masculine, feminine, or neuter, and why. 

Number. — Singular or plural, and why. 

Case. — Nominative, possessive, or objective, and why. 

Model for Parsing. — The dog knew him. 

Him is a personal pronoun ; third person, because it 
denotes the person spoken of ; masculine gender, be- 
cause it denotes a male ; singular number, because it 
denotes but one ; objective case, because it is used as 
the object of the verb knew. 



QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 

1. What is a pronoun? 

2. What are personal pronouns? 

3. Name them, giving those of the first person ; of the second per- 

son ; of the third person. 

4. Give those that take the place of nouns used as object comple- 

ments. 

5. Give those taking the place of subjects or attribute complements. 

6. Which ones are used as adjective modifiers ? 

7. In what case are they? 

8. Name those used as predicate adjectives. 

9. In what case are these ? 

10. Does the form of the possessive case of pronouns differ from 

that of nouns, and how? 

11. What is the antecedent of a pronoun? 

12. In what respect must the pronoun and its antecedent agree ? 

13. Name the compound personal pronouns. 

14. Are compounds ever formed from his and their ? 



96 LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

15. Make sentences showing two uses of the compound personal 

pronouns. 

16. Name the relative pronouns. 

17. What are the two uses of the relative pronouns ? 

18. Of what use is the clause introduced by a relative pronoun ? 

19. Give the declension of the relative pronouns, compound as well 

as simple. 

20. Which four forms are used in reference to persons ? 

21. Which two are applied to both persons and things? 

22. Which one, as relative, is applied to animals or things without 

life? 

23. Give the interrogative pronouns. 

24. As what other part of speech are these words used ? 

25. Give examples of each use. 

26. Name the demonstrative pronouns. 

27. As what other part of speech may each be used ? 

28. Give examples of both uses. 

29. What do you know about the uses of the pronoun that ? 

30. How can you prove its use as a relative ? 

31. Show this by example. 

32. Name ten indefinite pronouns. 

33. Be ready to show each as an adjective as well as a pronoun. 

34. W T hat difference do you notice between the inflection of the 

noun and the pronoun for gender ? for person ? for number ? 
for case ? 

SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW. 
Pronouns. 









r Personal, 
Relative 



na ' \ Simple and compound. 

we, ) 



Classes \ Interrogative, 

Demonstrative, 
^ Indefinite. 

Modifications . . Same as those of a noun. 

c Same as a noun. 

Uses <j Relatives, and sometimes interrogatives, 

also connect. 



CLASSES OF ADJECTIVES. 97 



CHAPTER X. 
Classes of Adjectives. 

Good health is long life. 

Black clouds turn to rain. 

The large tree bears sweet apples. 

White, fleecy clouds are in the blue sky. 

What kind of health is spoken of? What kind of life? 
What kind of tree? What kind of sky? What clouds 
turn to rain ? What kind of apples does the tree bear ? 
What kind of clouds are in the blue sky ? 

Thus we see that some words describe things by 
showing of what kind or quality they are. All such 
words are called descriptive adjectives. 

1. A descriptive adjective is one that expresses 
quality ; as, good, wise, hind, large, had, noble, etc. 

One man sat in the fourth pew. Some ships were destroyed. 

No pupil was idle. Both boys were absent. 

Every pupil studied. Much good may be done quietly. 

In these sentences the adjectives do not tell the kind, 
as the others did, but the number or quantity. This 
gives us the class of adjectives called numerals. 

2. A numeral adjective is one that expresses quan- 
tity; as, one, two, first, second, some, much, little, less, 
many, most, few, etc. 

This man is innocent. 
That man is guilty. 
Yonder wall is decaying. 



98 LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

Do we mean that any man is innocent? Or that any 
man is guilty ? Or that every wall is decaying ? 

A few adjectives, like this, that, and yonder, are used, 
not to describe, nor to tell how many, but to particu- 
larize or to point out. Such are called demonstrative 
adjectives. 

3. A demonstrative adjective is one that points out 
an object definitely ; as, the, this, that, these, those, 
former, latter, yonder. 

Which study do you like best ? 
What word did he misspell ? 
Whose pen is that ? 

Do you like all your studies best ? Did he misspell all 
his words ? Do we mean any pen ? Do we here distin- 
guish one thing from another by stating or by asking ? 

Which and what, used adjectively, are called interrog- 
ative adjectives. 

4. An interrogative adjective is one used in asking 
questions, — ivhich, what. 

Mention every adjective, tell what it modifies, and to 
which of the four sub-classes it belongs : — 

1. I see a black horse and a white horse in the picture. 

2. That old man is poor and lame and blind. 

3. I live in a red house with green blinds. 

4. The little boat cannot sail so fast as the great ship with its 

tall masts and broad sails. 

5. I know a sweet young girl with mild blue eyes. 

6. A smoking chimney and a scolding wife try the patience of a 

man. 

7. A hare and a tortoise ran a race. 

8. The tortoise gained the race. 

9. The curfew tolls the knell of parting day, 

The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea. 
10. In which house do you live ? 



CLASSES OF ADJECTIVES. 99 

11. The warm sun ripens the growing grain. 

12. All the boys are in the new class. 

13. Seven days make a week. 

14. All cats are gray in the dark. 

15. The bell did not ring on that day. 

Write a sentence in which you use a series of descrip- 
tive adjectives; also one in which you use a series of 
numeral adjectives. 

Write sentences, using these words as adjectives , tell 
what kind of adjective each is : — 

long sincere useful tough heavy 

two fifth tenfold all some 

waving flying this the singing 

short any many whose third 

Write sentences containing words that mean the op- 
posite of : — 

healthy frail healthful sincere 

truthful shallow slender narrow 

Form nouns from the adjectives, sometimes changing 
the spelling — 

(1) By adding the syllable ness : — 

white black loud coarse rough 

sweet hard heavy swift bright 

(2) By adding th : — 

long wide young 

deep warm true 

Form adjectives from the nouns by adding less, ful, 
or ish ; then form nouns from these adjectives by add- 



mg ness : — 










care 


father 


cheer 


boy 


girl 


tear 


pity 


health 


rogue 


feve 


sleep 


play 


fear 


self 


fop 




leaf 


hurt 


beauty 





100 LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

Long ago people said ane tree or ane act when they 
meant one tree or one act. Then the e was dropped, 
and they said an tree, or an act. 

Still later, for the sake of ease in speaking, n was 
dropped except before words beginning with the sound 
of a, e, % o, and u ; as : — 

an ape an elephant an image an orange an urn 

Some words beginning with a, e, or u are sounded as 
if they began with w or y. Before such we use a, not 
an ; as, many a one, a useful boy, a ewe and her lamb. 

The little words a or an and the are called articles. 
The is called the definite article, because it usually 
means a particular thing of the kind named. A or an 
is called the indefinite article, because it means any 
one thing of the kind named. Give me a pen, means 
that any pen will do. 

This is used to point out one thing near at hand ; 
that, to point out one thing farther off. 

These and those point out more than one : the first 
denoting objects near at hand; the second, objects 
farther off. 

Make sentences, using either a or an before : — 



acre 


office 


peach 


match 


melon 


unit 


apple 


ankle 


hour 


idleness 


heir 


echo 


plum 


upper room 


hair 


young man 


aisle 


carpet 


wagon 


hundred men 



Make sentences, using a or an, this, that, these, or 
those before : — 

whip goose mice ox 

awl geese engine oxen 

apples mouse nights honeybee 

Caution. — Do not use the pronoun them for the adjectives 
these and those. 



CLASSES OF ADJECTIVES. 101 

WORDS, PHRASES, ETC., USED AS ADJECTIVES. 

A noun often does the work of a simple adjective. 
Notice how the italicized words are used : — 

1. She wore a diamond necklace. 

2. Has the London mail arrived? 

3. Frank's dog is in Mr. Smith's yard. 

4. Kelley, the gardener, is going home. 

5. The novel, Uncle Tom's Cabin, is very popular. 

6. Parse the phrase, to go home. 

7. Her answer, " Seven are we," was repeated. 

8. The fact that he struck her is evident. 

All the italicized parts here, since they modify nouns, 
are, in effect or use, adjectives. In 3 the modifying 
noun denotes possession. In 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8 the 
modifier describes or identifies the noun. Note the 
difference between — 

Mr. Smith has returned. 

Mr. Smith, the merchant, has returned. 

Explanatory modifiers, like the merchant, are used as 
adjectives, and are separated from the rest of the sen- 
tence by commas. 

Put commas where they are needed: — 

Jones the merchant has failed. 

We crossed the Amazon the largest river in the world. 

His favorite sport to hunt the deer was over. 

The motion that the petition be granted prevailed. 

The maxim Haste makes waste is little heeded. 

A possessive pronoun may do the work of an ad- 
jective : — 

1. They killed his bird. 6. This lunch is mine. 

2. This is my lunch. 7. The basket is hers. 

3. He took her basket. 8. The hat is yours. 

4. Hang up your hat. 9. The skates are theirs. 

5. They broke their skates. 



102 LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAB. 

In the predicate position the pronoun changes its 
form slightly, as you see in 6, 7, 8, and 9. 

A participal or participial phrase may do the work 
of an adjective : — 

The man driving told him to get on 2 . 

The city standing on a hill may be seen a great distance. 

Caesar, having crossed the river, gave battle. 

An infinitive may do the work of an adjective : — 

Books to read were given him. 

Time to come is called future. 

His attempt to close the doors was not successful. 

A prepositional phrase may do the work of an ad- 
jective : — 

The flowers of spring are here. 

The boys on our street are noisy. 

The man in the moon turns a grindstone. 

A relative clause does the work of an adjective : — 

The man who is in the moon turns a grindstone. 

The house which he built was sold. 

These are subjects that are hard to understand. 

Pick out all the simple adjectives and all the parts 
that do the work of adjectives : — 

1. He saw a man in armor. 

2. The house built by Jack was destroyed. 

3. He made a dog kennel. 

4. Give me your hand. 

5. The army, being defeated, withdrew. 

6. The street of By and By leads to the house of Never. 

7. A horse to ride and a drum to beat satisfy him. 

8. The fear of evil is the beginning of wisdom. 

9. He that leans on his own strength leans on a broken reed. 

10. These books are my father's. 

11. The moss-covered bucket which hangs in the well. 

12. The prince, young and handsome, won the hearts of his 

subjects. 



CLASSES OF ADJECTIVES. 103 

13. She looks pretty. 

14. What man would do such a thing? 

15. Up yonder hill the village murmur rose. 

16. The scene was an unfailing source of pleasure. 

17. Henry, the coachman, has gone to the barn. 

18. You, Landis, were not attentive. 
19.. He was Arnold the traitor. 

20. He laughs best who laughs last. 

21. I know a bank where the arbutus grows. 

Clauses may often be changed to phrases, and both 
may be changed to words, without change of meaning. 
Thus : — 

1. He is a man of wealth = He is a ivealthy man. 

2. These are reports that can be relied upon = These are trust- 

worthy reports. 

3. Are these the lessons which are to be reviewed? — Are these the 

lessons to be reviewed f 

4. This is the temple that Solomon built = This is the temple 

built by Solomon. 

On the other hand, an adjective may be expanded 
into a phrase or a clause having the same meaning : — 

He is an eminent man = He is a man of eminence. 
Ambitious boys = Boys who are ambitious. 

Change the adjective phrases and clauses to adjective 
words: — 

1. The boy who studies will improve. 

2. The girl that is polite has friends. 

3. The man who is learned is respected. 

4. The horse which moves gracefully is admired. 

5. The merchant who acts honorably obtains credit. 

6. Let me show you some goods that are from Japan. 

7. Citizens who are patriots will not neglect to vote. 

8. I wish to introduce you to some travelers from America. 

9. I plucked a flower which grew in the garden. 



104 LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 

Expand adjective words into phrases and clauses : — 

a beautiful girl a garden flower 

an untruthful man bad people 

the studious boy a box of wood 

Write five sentences containing adjective phrases and 
five containing adjective clauses. 

An adjective derived from a proper noun is called a 
proper adjective ; as, American, German, Roman, etc. 

A proper adjective should begin with a capital letter. 

He was an Austrian general. 
He saluted the English flag. 

Write sentences containing proper adjectives made 
from the following nouns : — 



France 


Spain 


Britain 


Greece 


China 


Mexico 


Rome 


Scotland 


America 



Point out the nouns, pronouns, and adjectives in the 
following paragraphs, and tell the class to which each 
belongs : — 

Lake Erie is the shallowest of the Great Lakes, and, on this 
account, is the most stormy. A strong wind can at any time whip 
up large waves on the lake ; and if it comes from the southwest, 
the waves become foamy billows, racing in upon the beach as great 
breakers. Sometimes peninsulas, stretching out into the lake, are 
cut through by the force of the waves and carried away. 

Great danger always calls forth heroes, and the heroes of Lake 
Erie are legion. Every one has heard of John Maynard, the pilot 
who steered the burning steamer safe to shore, while he himself 
was slowly burning to death at his post. As the vessel touched 
the land, and a glad cry of thankfulness arose from the passengers 
whose lives he had saved, Maynard's blackened corpse fell into the 
quiet bosom of the lake. 



MODIFICATION OF ADJECTIVES. 105 



CHAPTER XL 
Modification of Adjectives. 

Adjectives have one modification, comparison. 1 
When we wish to compare two or more things with 
respect to some quality common to them, the difference 
may often be expressed by slightly changing the form 
of the adjective applied to each. Thus : — 

Cincinnati is large. 

Boston is larger. 

New York is the largest. 

The Amazon is a long river. 

The Nile is longer. 

The Mississippi is the longest of all. 

Yonr stick is short. 

His is shorter. 

Mine is shortest. 

The three cities are large, the three rivers are long, 
the three sticks are short, but in three different degrees. 

Comparison is a variation of the adjective to express 
quality in different degrees ; as, great, greater, greatest. 

There are three degrees of quality expressed in gram- 
mar, and hence there are three degrees of comparison : 
the positive, the comparative, and the superlative. 

The simple form of the adjective is called its positive 
degree ; as, large, long, short. 

The form of an adjective which denotes a higher or a 
lower degree of the quality expressed than the positive, is 
called the comparative degree ; as, larger, longer, shorter. 

1 With two exceptions, this and that, whose plural forms are these 
and those. 



106 LANGUAGE AND GBAMMAB. 

The form of an adjective which denotes the highest 
or lowest degree of the quality expressed, is called the 
superlative degree, as largest, longest, shortest. 

The ordinary way of comparing adjectives is to add 
to the positive form r or er to make the comparative, 
and st or est to make the superlative. 

The comparative degree is used when two things are 
compared. 

The superlative degree is used when three or more 
things are compared. 

Again, we might say of three sisters : — 
Alice is beautiful, 
Mabel is beautifuler, 
Bertha is beautifulest. 

But this would be too clumsy. It is easier to say : — 

Alice is beautiful, 
Mabel is more beautiful, 
Bertha is the most beautiful. 

Or, taking them the other way, we may say: — 

Bertha is beautiful, 
Mabel is less beautiful, 
Alice is least beautiful. 

Hence another method of expressing comparison is to 
prefix the adverbs more and most, or less and least, 

thus making adjective phrases. 

Some adjectives are compared irregularly; and to be 
sure of using them correctly, you must learn the com- 
parison of each : — 

Good better best 



Bad 
111 



worst 



Little less least 

Much 



Many 



f 



most 



MODIFICATION OF ADJE 


CTIVES. 


Far farther 


farthest 


Late later, latter 


latest, last 


Nigh nigher (near) 


nighest, next 


Old older, elder 


oldest, eldest 



107 



Some adjectives express qualities that do not admit 
of degrees ; as, round, equal, supreme. Such adjectives 
should not be compared. 

Compare such of the following adjectives as admit 
comparison, and give your reason for thinking that 
some of them are not compared : — 

old universal 

warm sad 



able 

sour 

certain 

lovely 

tough 

English 

empty 

false 

void 

ill 

soft 



ill-mannered wrong 
American fashionable 



hollow 

vain 

these 

sweet 

generous 

round 

timid 



blind 

humble 

few 

late 

diligent 

supreme 

evil-minded 



tenth 

naked 

equal 

pleasant 

handsome 

acceptable 

cheerful 

luscious 

wet 

deaf 

honest 



fatal 

3 uic y 

many 

thoughtless 

brave 

good-natured 

preferable 

particular 

lucrative 

dry 

rapid 



Supply suitable adjectives : — 



10. 
11. 
12. 
13. 



Of the two sisters, Cora is the . 

His apple is the . 

The rose is the flower in the garden. 

He is than his brother. 

She is than her sister. 

Alice has the dress in the company. 

The elephant is the land animal. 

The horse is a animal than the mule. 

Gold is and has a lustre than silver. 

This peach is and than yours. 

He is the pupil in the school. 

Gold is and than iron. 

Mr. Smith owns a house, and is the — 

city. 



man in 



the 



108 LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

Change comparatives and superlatives to equivalent 
adjective phrases ; change phrases to equivalent adjec- 
tives ; then change them all to phrases denoting lower 
and lowest degrees : — 

serener wildest more severe 

more stupid most witty ugliest 

handsomer more shallow most sincere 

fittest more handy sauciest 

most ample narrowest slenderest 

more nimble braver gentlest 

USES OF ADJECTIVES. 
The adjective has one general use in the sentence ; 
namely, to limit a noun or pronoun by expressing its 
quality or number. It may, however, stand in several 
different relations to the word it modifies, as : — 

1. Attributive. — An adjective closely connected with 
its noun ; as, A beautiful flower is a great pleasure. 

2. Predicate. — An adjective modifying the subject, 
but placed in the predicate ; as, The flower is beautiful. 

3. Objective complement. — An adjective modifying 
the object and used to complete the verb ; as, God made 
the flower beautiful. 

PARSING OF THE ADJECTIVE. 

An adjective is parsed by stating : — 

Class. — Descriptive, numeral, demonstrative, or in- 
terrogative. 

Degree of Comparison. — Positive, comparative, or 
superlative. 

Use. — Attributive, predicate, or objective complement. 
Model for Parsing. — This child has the neatest slate. 

Neatest is a descriptive adjective, of the superlative 
degree, and used attributively to modify slate. 



MODIFICATION OF ADJECTIVES. 109 



QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 

1. What is an adjective? 

2. How many classes of adjectives are there ? 

3. Define each. 

4. Give an example of each. 

5. What is the definite article ? 

6. What is the indefinite article ? 

7. When is the definite article used ? 

8. When is the indefinite article nsed ? 

9. To which class of adjectives does the definite article belong? 

10. What modification have adjectives ? 

11. How many degrees are there? 

12. Define positive degree ; comparative ; superlative. 

13. How is the comparative degree formed ? 

14. How is the superlative degree formed ? 

15. Give examples of adjectives irregularly compared. 

16. Give examples of adjectives that do not admit of comparison. 

17. What are proper adjectives ? 

18. To what class do they belong? 

19. Give examples of nouns used as adjectives. 

20. Show that a clause or phrase may be used as an adjective. 

21. How may an adjective be used ? 



SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW. 
Adjective. 



Classes 



f Descriptive, 
j Numeral, 
I Demonstrative, 
^ Interrogative. 



r Positive degree, 
Modification . . Comparison. <j Comparative degree, 

I Superlative degree. 

r Attributive, 
Uses J Predicate, 

t Objective complement. 



110 LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 



CHAPTER XII. 
Classes of Verbs. 

1. Frank caught a fish. 4. Fred ran against a tree. 

2. She broke her needle. 5. Mary skates on the river. 

3. He killed a butterfly. 

In each of these sentences what word asserts action ? 
In sentences 1, 2, and 3, what receives the action ? Is 
there any preposition before this word? Do we require 
the name of the objects, fish, needle, butterfly, to com- 
plete the meaning of the verbs, caught, broke, killed? 
We do; hence we say that some verbs represent the 
action as terminating directly upon some object. 

In sentences 4 and 5, what word receives the action ? 
Does this action pass over from the subject to the object 
directly, or by the aid of a preposition ? Can you say 
Fred ran a tree, or Mary skates the river ? No ; Fred 
ran against the tree, and Mary skates on the river. 
Hence, some verbs do not represent the action as ter- 
minating directly upon an object. 

This difference of meaning separates verbs into two 
principal classes : — 

1. Transitive verbs. 

2. Intransitive verbs. 

A transitive verb is one which expresses an action 
that terminates directly on some object. 

An intransitive verb is one which does not require 
an object to complete its meaning. 



CLASSES OF VERBS. 



Ill 



Supply objects to the following transitive verbs : — 



9. The king levied . 

10. The physician prescribes . 

11. Spring revives . 

12. The weary laborer reached 

13. Good men comfort . 

14. Good kings love their . 

15. The bridge spans . 

16. Ducks frequent . 



1. The sun gilds . 

2. The scholar gained . 

3. The diligent boy deserves 

4. Education improves . 

5. Fools despise . 

6. Rain refreshes . 

7. The gardener prunes . 

8. The boy repeats his . 

Supply intransitive verbs to the following subjects : 

The skylark . The lion . The parrot 

The owl . The lightning . Gold . 

The morning . The torrent . The tide . 

The blackbird . The battle . The squirrel — 

The children . The wind . The bell . 

The victor . Swallows . Water . 

The drum . The cannon . The lamb 

The smoke . The fruit . The wolf . 

Fill the blanks with transitive verbs : — 



10. 
11. 
12. 
13. 
14. 
15. 
16, 
17. 



The lion his prey. 

The bee honey. 

The woodman the tree. 

The hen her chickens. 

The fisherman his net. 

The husbandman his field. 

Learning the mind. 

Virtue mind. 

Perseverance difficulties. 

Vice the light. 

The clouds the prospect. 

Adversity friends. 

Parliament the laws. 

Commerce nations. 

The flowers perfume. 

The sun the clouds. 

Spring nature. 



112 



LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 



18. The volcano flame. 

19. The Hindoo the Ganges. 

20. The English fleet the Spanish Armada. 

21. Dionysius Damon to death. 

22. Cromwell forcibly the House of Commons. 

23. The king a letter to his secretary. 

24. The master freedom on his slave. 

25. The Romans the whole of the known world. 

26. The New World no lions. 

27. Hannibal Italy by crossing the Alps. 

28. The children daisies. 

29. The dog the mansion. 

30. The miser the robber. # 

Make simple sentences containing the following tran- 
sitive verbs : — 



purchase 


excel 


regard 


discover 


establish 


bequeath 


conceal 


paint 


introduce 


build 


honor 


overthrow 


construct 


strew 


caught 


rends 


imbibes 


overrate 


trust 


contain 


admire 


watch 


surprised 


welcome 



The same verb may be transitive in one use, and in- 
transitive in another. Thus : — 



( Snow melts. 

\ Heat melts snow. 

( The lightning flashed. 

\ His eyes flashed fire. 



( The fire burns. 

\ Fire burns wood. 

( He turns back. 

( The water turns the wheel. 



When a verb may be used alone as predicate, not only 
asserting, but showing what is asserted, it is said to be 
complete. Thus : — 



The sun shines. 
I will remain. 



Baby laughs. 
Apples are ripening. 



CLASSES OF VERBS. 113 

A verb that asserts without showing what is asserted, 
thus requiring one or more words to complete the mean- 
ing, is said to be incomplete. Thus : — 

He shut the door. 

I saw him. 

The day is lovely. 

She seems good. 

He looks ill. 

The part showing what is asserted, is called comple- 
ment. 

When the complement is a noun or pronoun which 
receives the action of the verb directly, it is called the 
object complement. 

Columbus discovered America. 
The sun gives light arid heat. 

The object complement may be a phrase or a clause 
used as a noun. Observe the use of the words in 
italics : — 

He tried to speak. 

Bion said " Know thyself." 

Bion said that we should know ourselves. 

Astronomers teach that stars are suns. 

Make six sentences containing object clauses. 

When the complement is a noun or pronoun denoting 
the same thing as the subject, or an adjective telling us 
something about the subject, it is called the attribute 
complement. 

Iron is a metal. 
Webster was an orator. 
He seemed sick. 
This book is new. 



114 LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

The attribute complement may be a phrase or a 
clause used as noun or adjective. Observe the words 

in italics : — 

He seemed to be innocent. 

To persevere is to succeed. 

Her answer was, " 1 am going home." • 

Make six sentences containing phrases or clauses used 
as attribute complements. 

When an intransitive verb, not expressing action, 
merely asserts, and links to its subject one or more words 
used to show what is asserted, it is called a copula. 
I am afraid. They were brave and wise. 

It is I. She became or seemed worse. 

The copulative verb and the complement make, in such 
sentences, the naked predicate ; as, am afraid, is 7, etc. 
Read these sentences, mention every verb, and tell 
(1) whether or not it expresses action; (2) whether it 
is transitive or intransitive ; (3) whether it is a copula; 
(4) what is its complement, if it has one ; (5) what the 
complement tells us about; (6) what part of speech the 
complement is : — 

1. Birds fly. 15. Coal is useful. 

2. Pansies bear seed. 16. Lead is heavy. 

3. Emma shells peas. 17. Lemons are sour. 

4. Minnie runs. 18. Dogs are faithful. 

5. Pine trees bear cones. 19. A tiger is striped. 

6. William laughs. 20. Oranges are juicy. 

7. Bees make wax. 21. Clover is fragrant. 

8. Reindeer draw sledges. 22. Kittens are playful. 

9. Julia waters the plants. 23. Acorn cups are rough. 

10. The baby smiles. 24. The summer is warm. 

11. Rushes grow tall. 25. Oysters are bivalves. 

12. Woodpeckers eat insects. 26. Wood was a botanist. 

13. The men are making hay. 27. Asbestos is a mineral. 

14. The boat has oars. 28. Longfellow was a poet. 



CLASSES OF VERBS. 



115 



29. Morse was an inventor. 38. 

30. The book is a geography. 

31. The general is an invalid. 39. 

32. The horse is a quadruped. 

33. The farmer sent his servant. 40. 

34. He put the letter into his 

pocket and smiled. 41. 

35. The bird flew away. 

36. Leaves have their time to fall. 42. 

37. The robin picked the crumbs 

after hopping in at the 
window. 



Mary turned and saw the ox 

coming. 
William ran up and turned 

the ox back. 
Follow me when you hear me 

shout. 
The wind bloweth where it 

listeth. 
It is time to fly when the wind 

blows the roof off. 



Write interrogative sentences that illustrate each of 
the following statements : — 

r action, 
A verb may express { existence, 
I condition. 
( transitive, 



A verb may be ■< 



intransitive, 
complete, 
incomplete, 
k copulative. 



VERBALS. 

The action, existence, or state expressed by a word 
may be assumed, and not directly asserted. Thus : — 

1. The girls, seeing their danger, cried for help. 

2. Having heard the alarm in sufficient time, they escaped. 
Are you fond of skating ? 
Are you anxious to go ? 
Seeing is believing. 
To see the sun is pleasant. 

these italicized parts express action in a general 
but do not assert it. (Mark the difference between 

The girls seeing and The girls see.') Such words are 

called verbals. 



3. 
4. 

5. 
6. 

All 
way, 



116 LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

A verbal is a word that expresses action, existence, 
or state, but does not assert it. 

Seeing, in the first sentence, adds an idea to, or modi- 
fies, girls; having heard modifies they; therefore both 
are like adjectives. Like a verb, however, seeing de- 
notes action, and takes an object. Having heard takes 
not only an object, but an adverb. Such a word, having 
the nature of both the adjective and the verb, is called 
a participle. 

Skating, in the third sentence, names an action, and 
is the object of a preposition. Seeing, in the fifth sen- 
tence, names an action, and is the subject of a sentence. 
Believing names an action, and is an attribute comple- 
ment. Such verbals are called participial nouns. 

A participal with its modifiers is called a participial 
phrase ; as, Having heard the alarm in sufficient time. 

Verbals like to go and to see are called infinitives. 

An infinitive with its modifiers is called an infinitive 
phrase ; as, To see the sun. 

Pick out the verbs and verbals ; also the participial 
and infinitive phrases : — 

1. To err is human. 

2. William is yet to come. 

3. The birds are beginning to migrate. 

4. Drawing trains the eye. 

5. Can he see without looking ? 

6. He is too gentle to hurt a fly. 

7. Being irritated, I made an angry reply. 

8. Did the dog run away howling with pain ? 

9. Stripping off his coat, he advanced to meet his foe. 

10. Forsaken by all my friends, I took refuge in flight. 

11. He does not seem to know how sinful swearing is. 

Make sentences, using the infinitives as subjects : — 
to eat to play to read 



CLASSES OF VERBS. 117 

to run to steal to write 

to dream to whistle to sleep 

Make sentences, using the infinitives as objects : — 

to sleep to rest to be chosen 

to fall to drive to be driven 

to give to dance to be whipped 

Make sentences, using the participial phrases, some 
as adjectives, some as nouns : — 

rowing the boat having been forgiven 

having been late looking over the lake 

reading the book picking the strawberries 

holding the reins having written the letter 

looking for a pin jumping from the carriage 

closing their books walking early in the morning 

Change each action from its asserted to its assumed 
form, and add new predicates. Thus: The bird sings 
may be changed to The bird singing in yonder tree is a 
robin. 

The horse runs. He is listening. 

The boy studies. He is going to school. 

The wind blows. He is walking up the hill. 

Change compound predicates to simple ones. Thus : 
The man fired and ran away may be changed to The 
man, firing, ran away. 

The pupils have finished their tasks, and are allowed to play. 
The lion rouses himself from his lair and begins to prowl. 
Toward twilight the owl quits its perch and takes a circuit 

round the fields. 
A hungry dog had picked up a bone and hurried off with it. 
A crow saw a pitcher at some distance, and flew with joy to it. 

Combine two simple sentences into one by using the 
participle : — 

1. Belgium was dissatisfied with its union to Holland. It re- 
volted in 1830. 



118 LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

2. Napoleon was defeated at Waterloo. He wished to abdicate 

in favor of his son. 

3. A frog one day saw an ox grazing in a meadow. It imagined 

it conld make itself as large as that animal. 

4. The crow opened its beak. It let fall the cheese. 

5. He turned up the bedclothes. He found his child unhurt. 

6. He ascended the scaffold. He addressed the assembly in 

a clear voice. 

7. Edward surrounded the town. He patiently awaited the re- 

sult of his measures. 

8. The emperor became intolerably tyrannical. Some of his 

nobles conspired against his life. 

9. The Russians burned Moscow. The French were compelled 

to leave the city. 

10. Leonidas sent away all but three hundred men. He resolved 

to defend the pass with this devoted band. 

11. Alfred disguised himself as a harper. He obtained access 

to the Danish camp. 

12. Alfred attacked the Danes at Athelney. He there inflicted 

on them a signal defeat. 

Distinguish between : — 

1. He rows for exercise. 

2. He rows that he may exercise. 

3. He rows to exercise. 

Change complex sentences into simple ones : — 

1. A negro, if he works for himself and not for his master, will 

do double the work. 

2. That we may fully understand the subject, let us consider 

the following statements. 

3. Seals and other animals which have both land and water 

habits are sometimes called amphibious animals. 

4. A good man will do his utmost that he may do good to 

his fellow-men and draw down blessings on himself. 

5. When Caesar had conquered Gaul he sailed for Britain. 

Select the verbs and verbals. Tell whether the verbs 



CLASSES OF VERBS. 119 

are words or phrases, transitive or intransitive, complete 
or incomplete, or copulative. Tell whether the verbals 
are adjectives, nouns, or adverbs, and point out their 
modifiers : — 

Two men set out on a journey ; one was blind, the other was 
lame. If they had known that they were both going the same 
way, each might have helped the other ; but they did not know 
this, so each walked on by himself. Very soon the blind man over- 
took the lame man, and passed him, because he could walk much 
more quickly. But presently he came to a stream flowing across 
the road, and bridged by nothing but a narrow plank. Here, at- 
tempting to cross, he fell in. On finding his clothes drenched with 
water, he sat down to dry them. Meantime the lame man passed 
him, hobbling along w T ith great difficulty, and obliged to stop to 
rest almost every minute. In this foolish way they would have 
pursued their journey, but, passing together through the next 
village, they met a little boy, who looked up at them and said, 
" Why do they travel in this foolish way? Surely they would be 
more comfortable if the lame man rode on the blind man ; then 
the lame man might guide, and the blind might carry." On hear- 
ing this, the blind man said at once, " This is a good thought. 
What say you ? I should like to try the experiment, if you did 
not object. ,, " By all means," answered the other ; " I shall be 
most happy to try it." So up he jumped ; and in this way they 
pursued their journey, and finished it in half (of) the time that it 
would else have taken. 

Make a story from the following outline, and tell all 
you can of the verbs and verbals : — 

A man driving his horse and cart — horse drawing a heavy 
load — did not turn as the man wished — man beat him — horse 
reared and plunged — would not go the right way — the man 
grew angry and beat him more — another man stepped forward — 
patted the horse on the neck — and spoke to him kindly — the 
horse turned — looked as if he would thank the man — bent his 
broad chest to the load — walked on briskly — a kind word is 
strong, and costs little. 



120 LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 



CHAPTER XIII. 
Modifications of Verbs. 

Verbs have five modifications: mode, tense, person, 
number, and voice. 

MODE. 

Mode is that modification of a verb which expresses 
the manner of asserting the action or being. 

A verb may be used to state a fact or to ask a ques- 
tion : — 

He studies diligently. A re you ready ? 

He does all things well. Who wishes this ? 

When a verb asserts its idea as a fact, a denial, or a 
question, it is said to be in the indicative mode. Most 
verbs are of this kind. 

A verb may be used to express a command : — 

Be ready. 
Study diligently. 
Do all things well. 

When a verb expresses a command or an entreaty, it 
is said to be in the imperative mode. 

A verb may express permission or possibility ; as, — 

You may go ; that is, You are at liberty to go. 
You may still be in time. 

It may express ability or power ; as, — 
I can write a letter. He sent word that I might come. 

He can walk, if he will, I could not come. 



MODIFICATIONS OF VERBS. 121 

It may express compulsion or necessity ; as, — 

Men must work. 

You must not be noisy. 

When a verb expresses liberty, possibility, power, or 
necessity, it is said to be in the potential mode. 

Note. — Grammarians differ greatly in regard to the treatment 
of mode. Some would recognize either the infinitive or subjunctive 
or both as separate modes. For a full treatment of this subject, 
see Studies in English Grammar, page 128. 

TENSE. 

A verb may tell what any person or thing does at the 
present time : — 

I know my lesson. 

He walks to school. 

They catch fish in the river. 

A verb may tell what any person or thing did in past 

time : — 

I knew my lesson yesterday. 
He walked to school last week. 
They caught fish in the river. 

A verb may tell what any person or thing will do in 
the future time : — 

I shall know my lesson to-morrow. 
He will walk to school next week. 
They will catch fish in the river. 

Tense is that modification of a verb which expresses 
the time of the action or being. The word tense comes 
from the Latin word tempus, which means time. 

There are six tenses : the present, the past, the future; 
the present perfect, the past perfect, and the future 
perfect. 



122 LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

The present tense expresses the action or being as 
present; as, I know my lesson. 

The past tense expresses the action or being as past ; 
as, I knew my lesson yesterday. 

Add ed to each of the following verbs to denote past 
time ; then use the resulting form in a sentence : — 

work sail show talk 

wait turn sow wish 

Since the following end in e, add only d for the same 
purpose ; then use the resulting form in a sentence : — 

hope smoke live promise 

love use please smile 

Change y to i, add ed, then use each verb in a sen- 
tence : — 

cry carry rely study 

try fancy reply spy 

The past tense is usually formed by adding d or ed to 
the present tense. This is the regular way. 

In a number of the oldest verbs the change appears 
in the middle of the word, whether anything is added 
or not : — 

Present Tense. Past Tense. 

fall fell 
see saw- 
stand stood 
lead led 
do did 
may might 
shall should 
will would 
can could 
think thought 

and many others. 



MODIFICATIONS OF YEBBS. 



123 



Verbs that form their past tense by adding ed or d 
to the present are said to be regular. 

Verbs that form their past tense in some other way 
are irregular. 

For the past tenses of two verbs, be and go, different 
words are used, — was and went. 

Write the present tense of the following, and tell 
whether the verb is regular or irregular : — 



came 


wept 


strung 


sang 


blinded 


rose 


sat 


was 


folded 


raised 


patted 


played 


began 


could 


caught 


worked 


stood 


walked 


chose 


came 


waited 


bit 


tried 


crept 


struck 


blew 


broke 


flew 


gazed 


brought 


burned 


whipped 


did 


bled 


dug 



The principal parts of a verb are the present indica- 
tive (root-infinitive), the past indicative, and the past 
participle; 1 as, serve, served, served ; write, wrote, written* 

Give the principal parts of the verbs in the preceding 
list. 

Write the principal parts of — 



become 


flee 


slide 


swim 


fight 


bid 


shine 


think 


smite 


teach 


grow 


shrink 


steal 


tread 


throw 


ring 


seek 


crow 


lie 


freeze 


be 


run 


fall 


strive 


swear 


let 


lend 


cling 


burst 


bear 


draw 


drink 


drive 


eat 


sing 


find 


know 


shake 


take 


tear 



The future tense expresses the action or being as yet 
to come ; as, I shall know my lesson to-morrow. 

1 For the formation of the past participle see p. 142. 



124 LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

To form the future tense merely, put shall or will 
before the root-infinitive, using shall in the first person, 
and will in the second and third persons : — 

I shall be there. [=1 owe to ^> e there.] 

Will you go f [= you will to go ?] 

Will she not sing ? [= she wills not to sing?] 

To promise or to resolve, use will with I, and shall 
with other subjects : — 

I will do it. 

You shall not whisper. 

They shall vacate the house. 



I shall go ^ I will go -\ 

Thou wilt go } simply foretell. Thou shalt go [ P romise or 

He will go J He shall go J resolve - 



Sometimes shall -or will is understood, the root-infini- 
tive standing alone. 

If he [shall] 1 be better, you may remain. 

If thy right eye [shall] offend thee, pluck it out. 

A verb can denote by its form only two kinds of time 
— present and past. 

Future time, as we have seen, is expressed not by an 
inflection, but by using in connection with the verb 
such words as shall, will, etc. : He will fall, He shall see. 

Verbs like shall or will, which help to form the modes 
and tenses of other verbs, are called auxiliary or helping 
verbs. 

The auxiliary verbs are do (did), be (am, was, been}, 
have (had}, shall (should}, will (would), may (might), 
can (could}, and must. 

1 Classed by some grammarians as a separate mode — the subjunctive. 
See note, page 121. 



MODIFICATIONS OF VERBS. 125 

Shall, may, can, and must are always used as auxil- 
iaries. Do, be, have, and will are often so used, but 
sometimes they are principal. Thus : — 
r He does or did the work. 

J I am (that is, I live or exist). 
Principal { j w ft dog _ 

L My father wills it. 
p Did you see him ? 

| He is splitting rails. 
Auxiliary < r ™ 7 , -. -, 

J I lney have stolen my dog. 

L My father will return to-day. 

The present perfect tense expresses the action or 
being as completed at the present time ; as, They have 
passed the corner. 

This tense is formed by prefixing the auxiliary have 
to the past participle. 

The past perfect tense expresses the action or being 
as completed at some past time mentioned ; as, They 
had gone. 

This tense is formed by prefixing the auxiliary had 
to the past participle. 

The future perfect tense expresses the action or 
being as completed at some future time mentioned ; as, 
They will have passed through the city by to-morrow 
noon. 

This tense is formed by prefixing the auxiliaries shall 
have or will have to the past participle. 

Such expressions as shall see, had seen, might have 
seen, etc., may be called verb phrases. 

Name the tense of each verb and verb phrase in the 
following sentences : — 

1. We shall go to-morrow. 

2. They will be happy to do so. 

3. Calmness in danger has saved many. 



126 LANGUAGE AND GBAMMAB. 

4. Is the baby well ? 

5. Thirst causes agony. 

6. The two friends talked long together. 

7. Trials will come to us all. 

8. When I left, the coach had arrived . 

9. Woes cluster ; they love a train. 

10. Take care of the pence, and the pounds will take care of 

themselves. 

11. They will have finished the house before the occupants 

enter it. 

12. The driver carried them all to the hotel. 

13. Dingy houses looked down upon the filthy streets. 

Change the verbs into present perfect, past perfect, 
or future perfect verb phrases, according as the verb 
shows present, past, or future time : — 

1. He sings well. 6. She had an instructor. 

2. He wrote yesterday. 7. We shall set out on his re- 

3. They will go to-morrow. turn. 

4. They could not wait. 8. Can it be true ? 

5. They should obey their 9* What could he answer ? 

parents. 10. Would he welcome you ? 

Make sentences, using the future tense and perfect 
tense phrases of each of the following : — 



went 


came 


drank 


clung 


sang 


slept 


flew 


rode 


sprung 


wore 


began 


rose 



NUMBER. 



A verb may assert of only one person or thing : — 



The boy < 



f laughs 

wishes for a knife 

has a knife 

was sick 
fc m better 



MODIFICATIONS OF VERBS. 127 

A verb may assert of more than one person or 
thing : — 

( laugh 

| icish for knives 
The boys <j have knives 
I were sick 
(^ are better 

With which of the above groups of verbs could the 
pronoun he be used properly? With which group 
could the pronoun they be used properly? Of what 
person and number is the noun boy? The pronoun he? 
Of what person and number is the noun Jboys? The 
pronoun they? Notice the difference in the forms of 
the verbs in the two groups. 

A verb used to assert of only one person or thing is 
in the singular number ; as, wishes, has, was, is. 

A verb used to assert of more than one person or 
thing is in the plural number ; as, wish, have, were, are. 

Supply is, are, was, or were : — ■ 

1. Mary in the garden. 

2. Mary and Alice in the garden. 

3. The bird shy. 

4. The birds shy. 

5. Kover lonesome. 

6. those marbles yours ? 

7. James and William away. 

8 The snow flying. 

9. Our hands cold. 

10. They here. 

11. The sailor on the ship. 

12. The ashes taken away. 

13. The kittens asleep when I saw them. 

14. One of you mistaken. 

15. Six too many apples for you. 

16. My ringers frozen. 

17. It not your fault. 



128 LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

Supply the correct form of a verb, and tell whether 
the verb is singular or plural : — 

1. The blaze up the chimney. 

2. The cat a mouse. 

3. The cats some mice. 

4. Mary, Clara, and I members of the choir. 

5. They music. 

6. The wind violently to-day. 

7. When men their duty, they happy. 

8. The star all night. 

9. The stars all night. 

PERSON. 

Now observe what changes take place in a verb of the 
singular number when the subject is of the first, second, 
or third person : — 

■5 f ee >■ a book. w e ( ] 

you ( have ) see 

tt I sees I , 1 ^ u Have f abook ' 

(has f abook - they [ have j 

1 I was sick. We 1 

he ) you > were sick. 

You were sick. they J 

I am ^ We -) 

you are J> well. you J> are well. 

he is J they J 

Am, are, is, was, and were are called forms of the 
copula be. With this exception (and changing have to 
has), we see that the only variation of the verb to 
express person is by adding s or es when the subject 
is of the third person and singular number. Accord- 
ingly, this is called the third-singular form. 

A long time ago changes in the verb to suit the per- 
son and number of the subject were more frequent than 
now. Two old-style forms, such as we see in the Bible, 



MODIFICATIONS OF VERBS. 129 

are still used in prayer and poetry. Thus, with thou as 
subject, the verb ends in est, st, or t : — 

Thou, O Lord, holdest us in thy hand. 

Thou seest us. 

Thou art from everlasting. 

Thou wert faithful to the end. 

Thou madest the world. 

Instead of the usual third-singular form in s, a form 
in th or eth may be used : — 

Whom the Lord loveth he chasteneth. 

You will understand, therefore, what is meant (and 
how little) by the usual rule : — 

A verb must agree with its subject in person and 
number. 

Add es to each of these words to make the third- 
singular, then use the resulting form in a sentence : — 
do wish push watch 

go catch fix dress 

Add s to each of the following, then use the resulting 
form in a sentence : — 

burn shine swim write 

cut bear hope read 

Change y at the end of each of the following to i, add 
es, then use the resulting form in a sentence : — 
fly dry carry fancy 

try deny worry hurry 

Use each of the following verbs with I, you, he, we, 
they, it, and spell the third-singular of the verb : — 

wish lie find do 

have cry wait smash 

Fill the blanks with the proper form of be, have, or 

do : — 

1. My cousins riding in a sleigh. 

2. The cat watching a mouse. 



130 



LANGUAGE AND GBAMMAB. 



3. your uncle come ? 

4. Emily lost her knife. 

5. she lost her umbrella ? 

6. The cow horns. 

7. The cow and the horse hoofs. 

8. My name Charley Clark. 

9. I older than Margie. 

10. Willie and I playmates. 

11. I sure that all men sometimes wrong. 

12. A poet says, " Whatever , is right." 

13. Thou a shadow on thy brow. 

14. thou a friend ? I . 

15. Lives there a man who not sin ? 

16. Whales less numerous than they were. 

17. He (old form) not listened ; he (old form) not 

hear. 

18. We, who the chief sufferers, come to complain. 

19. It is thou that the aggressor. 

20. They who right their reward. 

21. You and I, who been waiting so long, will now take 

our turn. 

22. You and he not answer. 

23. He and I going. 

24. Even I, who surrounded by comforts, know what 

sorrow . 

25. The foliage fresh, the fields charming. 

Learn the person and number forms of the following 
verbs in the indicative mood, present and past tenses : — 



Present 



Indicative i 



Past i 



Be. 

r am, with 1 as subject. 

art, with thou as subject. 

is, with any third-singular subject. 

are, with you or any plural subject. 
r was, with any singular subject, — not with 
thou nor you. 



i wast or wert, with thou as subject. 
^ were, with you or any plural subject. 



Present 



{ 



MODIFICATIONS OF VFBBS. 131 

May. 



may 



mayest, with thou as subject, 

Past \ mi * ht 

( might 



Present -j 
Past j 



Present -5 
Pas* j 



mightest, or mightst, with ^ou as subject. 

Can. 
can 
canst, with thou as subject. 

could 

couldst, with thou as subject. 

Shall. 
shall 
shalt, with thou as subject. 

should 

shouldst, with thou as subject. 



Present \ 

( wi 

Past j 



Will. 
will 

wilt, with thou as subject. 

would 

wouldst, with thou as subject. 



Do. 
do 

Present -{ dost (or doest), with thou as subject. 

does, doth, or doeth, with a third-singular as subject. 

did 

didst, with thou as subject. 



Past \ di < 
( die 



Have. 
have 
Present -{ hast, with thou as subject. 

has, hath, with any third-singular subject. 

had 

hadst, with thou as subject. 



Past j 



132 LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAB. 

Change the following sentences so that each shall 
state or ask something about more than one thing : — 

1. The book has a green cover. 

2. The car has started. 

3. Has the boy come ? 

4. A spider has eight legs. 

5. Your brother has been here. 

6. Has the watch stopped ? 

Supply verbs, and tell why the verb chosen is of the 
correct form : — 

A little girl, by name Lucy Gray, one winter afternoon 

with a lantern to meet her mother. She smartly on through 

the snow. The storm on sooner than her father . The 

snow so thick that she her way. She up and down ; 

many a hill she , but never the town. Her mother 

home alone. Both parents immediately in search of their 

beloved daughter. All night they far and wide, but 

neither sound nor sign of her whom they . When daylight 

, the mother the prints of Lucy's feet in the snow. They 

then the footmarks down the hill-side to the wooden bridge 

that the river. At the middle of the planks the marks , 

and beneath the swollen stream. They bitter tears of 

sorrow. " Oh ! my darling child," the poor mother, " thou 

to an untimely end for my sake." They never their 

daughter more. The neighbors, all of whom Lucy, 

deeply for her loss. 

Fill the following blanks with suitable verbs, and 
of each verb tell whether it is transitive or intransi- 
tive, of what tense it is, and whether it is regular or 
irregular : — 

1. The duke yesterday. 

2. Tom a lot of marbles, but he soon them all. 

3. He me to soon. 

4. me your copy-book. 

5. I never so many blunders. 

6. The gardener the bushes. 



MODIFICATIONS OF VEBBS. 



133 



7. The audience then , " God the Queen." 

8. The old man home with a bundle of sticks which he 

in the wood. 

9. The volunteers twice a week, and through the town. 

10. Those cruel boys the donkey with big sticks, and 

stones at him. 

CONJUGATION. 

The conjugation of a verb is the regular arrangement 
of its modes, tenses, persons, and numbers. 



Conjugation of the Verb "Love." 

Principal Parts. 



Present. 
Love. 


Past. 
Loved. 


Past Participle 
Loved. 




Indicative Mode. 


Singular. 
1st Per. I love, 


Present Tense. 


Plural. 
1st Per. We love, 


2dPer.\ You love [ 
( lovest] , 

3d Per. He loves, 


' or thou 


2d Per. You love, 




3c? Per. They love. 


Singular. 
1st Per. I loved, 


Past Tense. 


Plural. 
1st Per. We loved, 


2dPer.\ Yon loved 
( lovedst] , 

M Per. He loved, 


[or thou 


2d Per You loved, 
3d Per. They loved. 



Future Tense. 
1. Simply to express a future action or event : — 

Singular. Plural. 

1st Per. I shall love, 1st Per. We shall love, 

2d Per \ You wil1 love t or tll0U ^ d Per ' YoU wil1 love ' 
( wilt love], 

36? Per. He will love, 3d Per. They will love. 



134 LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

2. To express a promise or determination : — 

Singular. Plural. 

1st Per. I will love, 1st Per. We will love, 

2d Per i ^ ou s ^ a ^ * ove C or %d Per. You shall love, 

( thou shalt love] , 
3d Per. He shall love, 3d Per. They shall love. 

Present Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1st Per. I have loved, 1st Per. We have loved, 

2d Per \ ^ ou ^ ave l° ve( * [. or 2c? Per. You have loved, 

( thou hast loved], 
3d Per. He has loved, 3c? Per. They have loved. 

Past Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1st Per. I had loved, 1st Per. We had loved, 

■q 7 p ( You had loved [or 2d Per. You had loved, 

( thou hadst loved], 

3d Per. He had loved, 3c? Per. They had loved. 

Future Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1st Per. I shall have loved, 1st Per. We shall have loved, 

2d P " I ^ ou w ^* h ave l° ve d [or 2d Per. You will have loved, 

( thou wilt have loved] , 
3c? Per. He will have loved, 3c? Per, They will have loved. 



Potential Mode. 

Present Tense. 

This tense is formed by prefixing the auxiliary may, 
can, or must to the root-infinitive : — 

Singular. Plural. 

1st Per. I may love, 1st Per. We may love, 

o i p , j You may love [or 2d Per. You may love, 

( thou mayst love] , 

3c? Per. He may love, 3c? Per. They may love. 



MODIFICATIONS OF VERBS. 135 

Past Tense. 
This tense is formed by prefixing the auxiliary might, 
could, would, or should to the root-infinitive. 

Singular. Plural. 

1st Per. I might love, 1st Per. We might love, 

2 , p ( You might love [or 2c? Per. You might love, 

( thou mightst love], 

3rf Per. He might love, 3c? Per. They might love. 

Present Perfect Tense. 
This tense is formed by prefixing the auxiliaries may 
have, can have, or must have to the past participle : — 

Singular. Plural. 

1st Per. I may have loved, 1st Per. We may have loved, 

( You may have loved 2d Per. You may have loved, 
2c? Per. < [or thou mayst have 

L loved], 

3c? Per. He may have loved, 3c? Per. They may have loved. 

Past Perfect Tense. 
This tense is formed by prefixing the auxiliaries might 
have, could have, would have, or should have to the past 
participle : — 

Singular. Plural. 

1st Per. I might have loved, 1st Per. We might have loved, 

r You might have loved 2c? Per. You might have loved, 
2c? Per. < [or thou mightst have 

( loved] , 

3c? Per. He might have loved, M Per. They might have loved. 

Imperative Mode. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

2d Per. Love [thou]. 2c? Per. Love [ye or you]. 

Infinitives. 
Present. Perfect. 

To love. To have loved. 



136 



LANGUAGE AND GBAMMAB. 



Present. 
Loving. 



Participles. 

Past. 

Loved. 



Past Perfect. 
Having loved. 



Conjugation of the verb "Be." 

The conjugation of the verb be contains three distinct 
roots — am, be, and was, all of which appear in the prin- 
cipal parts, ' am,' ' was,' ' been.' 

The eleven distinct forms found in the full conjugation 
of this verb are — 



am 


was 


be 


art 


wast 


being 


is 


were 


been 


are 


wert 





With the omission of the old forms, so seldom used, 
the scheme is : — 

Indicative Mode. 



Present Tense. 


Past Tense. 


Future Tense. 


I am 
He is 


I 
He 


j was. 


I 

You 


1 
i 


We ^ . 


We 


1 


He 


> shall or will be. 


You > are. 


You 


y were. 


We 




They J 


They 


J 


They 


j 


Present Perfect. 


Past Perfect. 


Future Perfect. 


I 1 


I 


] 

V had been. 

J 


I 


1 

J shall or will 
| have been. 


You I V V 

__ > have been. 
We 

They J 


You 

He 

We 


You 

He 

We 


He . . has been. 


They 


They 


J 



Potential Mode. 



Present Tense. 

I 

You 

He 

We 



They J 



I may 
I can, or 
I must 



be. 



Past Tense. 
I 

You 
He 
We 
They 



might, 
could, 
would, or 
should be. 



Present Perfect. 

j may, can, 

You I or must 
He 

We 

They J 



have 
been. 



I 

You 
He 
We 
They 



Past Perfect. 
might, 
could, 
would, or 
should 
J have been. 



MODIFICATIONS OF VERBS. 137 

Imperative Mode. 

Be. 

Infinitives. 

Present : To be. Perfect : To have been. 

Participles. 

Present: Being. Past: Been. 

There remains to be noticed the potential use of the 
past tense of be. Thus : — 

If I ivere to offer him water, he would drink. 

Were he to see me, he would know me. 

It ivere well it were done quickly. 

These statements are equivalent to : — 
If I should offer him, etc. 
Should he see me, etc. 
It would be well [that] it should be done quickly. 

Conjugate : — 

dry gaze sing ship 

wrap merit submit glorify 

differ compel rob omit 

Pick out the verbs, including the verb phrases ; give 
the mode, tense, person, and number of each, also the 

principal parts : — 

1. Ye believed. 

2. Believest thou ? 

3. Turn ye. 

4. Thou shunnedst. 

5. Whither walk ye ? 

6. Shun folly. 

7. They enrolled. 

8. Stumbledst thou ? 

9. Believe it not. 

10. I wish to go. 

11. Does he intend to speak ? 



138 LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAB. 

12. Though thou wert to speak, he would not hear. 

13. So be it. 

14. Unless he come, we stay. 

15. The nurse set the child on the floor an hour. 

16. A hen sits on her eggs to keep them warm. 

17. Carrie set her hen on ducks' eggs. 

18. William raised his hand before he rose. 

19. We lay on the grass after the sun went down. 

20. Cuckoos lay their eggs in the nests of other birds. 

21. If it arrive, I intend to give it to my son. 

22. Have the goodness to stand back. 

23. Ye have come. 

24. He may have come. 

25. " If I might choose," said the camel to Jupiter, " I would 

have the neck of the swan, and the legs of the horse ; 
then I should be the king of the beasts." " You could not 
have made a greater mistake," replied Jupiter ; " if you 
had your way, you would be nothing but a giraffe." 



Forms with "Do." 
Do is used to make the emphatic form of the verb : — 

I do try, I do adore you. 

How it did storm ! 

Do is also used in many forms of interrogation : — 

Do you skate? Does he often go alone? 

Did you like the play? How do you do ? 

Do helps to make a negative form : — 

I do not skate. He does not often go alone. 

Change each of the following to the emphatic, the 
negative, and the interrogative forms with do : — 

I see. Doctors differ. 

I saw. You know your lesson. 

Their journey ended. He thinks it will rain. 

Time works changes. Gently blows the evening breeze. 



modifications of verbs. 139 

Progressive Forms. 

Verb phrases that represent the action of the verb as 
continuing, or actually in progress, make the progres- 
sive form of the verb. 

The progressive form is made by prefixing be in all 

its modes and tenses to the present participle : — 

( am ( . . ( was 7 

M have been j writing. I j had feeen {writing. 

c shall be 1 c may be } 

( shall have been ) n =>' { may have been \ wn in ^' 

r might be ) 
1 \ might have been} writiu 3' 

Give the second and third persons, singular and 
plural, of each of the above phrases. 

Change each verb in the following sentences to the 
progressive form, and give its mode and tense : — 

1. He will preach. 

2. The boys must have played. 

3. I do not deceive you. 

4. We had discussed the point. 

5. The wind has roared all day. 

6. The wind blows from the east. 

7. She looked from the window when we arrived. 

8. Will you go ? 

9. Study. 

10. Can he have sat ? 

Insert suitable auxiliaries : — 

1. Columbus thought that he reach the East Indies by 

sailing westward. 

2. You prepare your lesson, if you study. 

3. Close the doors ; nobody leave the room. 

4. We vote, if the polls are open. 

5. We vote in spite of you. 

6. They go, if they can. 

7. You have been killed. 

8. She not be allowed to go home alone. 



140 LANGUAGE AND GBAMMAB. 



VOICE. 

The subject of a verb may be said either to do or to 
receive the action expressed by the verb. Thus : — 

{ He calls. 
( He is called. 

c The engine draws the train. 

I The train is drawn by the engine. 

( Every patriot will defend the flag. 

( The flag will be defended by every patriot. 

Voice is that modification of a transitive verb which 
shows whether the subject names the actor or the per- 
son or thing acted upon. 

A verb that represents the subject as acting is in the 
active voice. 

A verb that represents the subject as acted upon is 
in the passive voice. 

There being no single word-form that has a passive 
meaning, we are compelled, as the examples show, to 
use another kind of verb-phrase. 

The passive voice is formed by prefixing be, in all 
its modes and tenses, to the past participle of a transi- 
tive verb. 

Active and passive forms express the same thought 
when the object of the active is made the subject of the 
corresponding passive : — 

De Soto discovered the Mississippi. 

The Mississippi was discovered by De Soto. 

The passive forms of the present and past indicative 
are sometimes made progressive : — 

His money is being wasted. 

The house was being destroyed by fire. 



MODIFICATIONS OF VEBBS. 141 

Change active forms to passive, and passive to 
active : — 

1. Hitch your wagon to a star. 

2. Fulton invented the steamboat. 

3. The sun warms the earth. 

4. Good boys use books with care. 

5. You have helped us very much. 

6. The teacher had punished John. 

7. The bees will make honey. 

8. The wind is blowing the leaves along the street. 

9. When you arrive, the exercises will have been written. 

10. The house will be sold by the sheriff. 

11. She laid the book on the table. 

12. They may have broken the window. 

13. Thou seest our sorrows. 

14. The letter must be written to-day. 

15. She cannot have received my letter. 

16. The gate will be opened by an old man. 

17. I was recognized by him at once. 

18. We have all been saved by you to-day, 

19. He was often interrupted by the deep hum of his audience. 

20. Britain was subjugated by the Roman arms. 

21. A resolution directly condemning him could not be carried 

by them. 

22. My lord, the greatest injustice is done to us poets by you. 

23. It was a message whereby many hearts were lightened. 

24. William had been largely endowed by nature with the 

qualities of a great ruler, and those qualities had been 
developed in no common degree by education. 

25. The dangers whereby the State was threatened had been 

strongly represented to the king by Montague. 



VERBALS. 

We have seen elsewhere (p. 115) that verbals are 
words denoting state or action, but without asserting it. 
We have seen also that verbals are of two kinds, parti- 
ciples and infinitives. 



142 LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

There are three leading participles : the present, which 
expresses incomplete action or state; the past, which 
expresses complete action or state ; and the past perfect, 
which expresses action completed in past time. 

The present participle ends in ing : — 
Crawford, turning, noticed me. 

Since the present participle describes the person or 
thing as doing something, it is often called the active 
participle. 

The past participle commonly ends in ed (d), t or 

en (n) : — 

Delayed by a storm, we were an hour late. 

Since the past participle describes persons or things as 
enduring or having something done to them, it is often 
called the passive participle. 1 

The past perfect participle is formed by prefixing 
having to the past participle : — 

Richard having vacated the throne, Henry became king. 

There are also three infinitives : — 

1. The infinitive in ing", or participial infinitive, 

which differs from the active participle in doing the 
work, not of an adjective, but of a noun : — 

Telling lies hardens the heart. 

The habit of smoking tobacco is hard to correct. 

2. The root infinitive, or simplest form of the verb. 
The preposition to is usually placed before it : — 

To work is to win. 

3. The perfect infinitive, which is formed by pre- 
fixing to have to the past participle : — 

I am glad to have met you. 

1 The boy has broken the glass = The boy has the glass broken. John 
has caught the ball = John has the ball caught. 



MODIFICATIONS OF VERBS. 143 

Select the participles and infinitives, and tell of which 
kind each is, giving your reasons : — 

1. He is slow to forgive. 

2. It began to caress him. 

3. These are wagons for carrying corn. 

4. Writing letters is making signs. 

5. I am sorry to hear this. 

6. Throwing their muskets aside, after firing them once, the 

clansmen rushed upon the foe. 

7. Brandishing their broadswords, they swept through the 

already wavering ranks, giving them no time for rallying. 

8. I saw him walking in the garden, and looking at the men 

who were engaged in pruning the trees. 

PARSING OF THE VERB. 

A verb is parsed by stating : — 

Form. — Regular or irregular, and why. 

Use. — Transitive or intransitive, and why. 

Voice. — Active or passive, and why. 

Mode. — Indicative, potential, or imperative, and 
why. 

Tense. — Present, past, future, present perfect, past 
perfect, or future perfect, and why. 

Person. — First, second, or third, and why. 

Number. — Singular or plural,*knd why. 

Model. — The dog guarded the mansion. 

Guarded is a regular verb, because it forms its past 
tense and past participle by adding ed ; transitive, be- 
cause it takes an object ; active voice, because it repre- 
sents the subject as acting ; indicative mode, because it 
asserts a fact ; past tense, because the action took place 
in past time ; third person and singular number, because 
it must agree in person and number with its subject dog. 



144 LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 



QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 

1. What is a transitive verb? An intransitive? 

2. What is a complete verb ? An incomplete verb ? 

3. What is meant by complement ? By object complement? 

4. What may the object complement be? 

5. What is an attribute complement ? What may it be ? 

6. What is a copulative verb ? A verbal ? 

7. How many kinds of verbals are there ? 

8. Define participle ; participial noun ; participial phrase. 

9. How many participles are there? Define each. 

10. How many infinitives are there ? 

11. What is meant by infinitive phrase? 

12. How many modifications have verbs ? 

13. What is mode? 

14. Define indicative mode ; potential mode ; imperative mode. 

15. What is tense ? 

16. How many tenses in the indicative mode? Define each. 

17. How many tenses in the potential mode ? 

18. How is the past tense usually formed ? 

19. What two tenses are denoted by the form of the verb? 

20. What is a regular verb ? An irregular verb ? 

21. What is meant by principal parts of a verb? 

22. Why so called? 

23. What are auxiliary verbs? 

24. What are simple tenses ? Compound tenses ? 

25. Explain the formation of the compound tenses in each mode. 

26. What is meant by pepson and number of a verb ? 

27. How many roots does the copula be contain ? 

28. Name the eleven distinct forms in the conjugation of be. 

29. What is meant by emphatic form of conjugation ? 

30. How is a verb conjugated interrogatively? Negatively? 

31. What does the progressive form of the verb show ? 

32. How is the progressive form made ? 

33. How is the perfect infinitive formed? 

34. How is the past perfect participle formed ? 

35. What is voice ? 

36. What is meant by active voice ? By passive voice ? 

37. How is a verb changed from active voice to passive voice?. 



MODIFICATIONS OF VERBS. 



145 



SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW. 
Verb. 



Principal Parts 



Classes 



Present Indicative, 
Past Indicative, 
Past Participle. 



As to Form 

As to Use . 



( Regular, 

( Irre^ 

( Trai 

( Intr 



Irregular. 
Transitive, 
ansitive. 



Modifications . < 



Tense . 



Use 



r Indicative, 
Mode { Potential, 

I Imperative. 

( Present, 
Past, 
Future, 

Present Perfect, 
Past Perfect, 

, Future Perfect. 

p First, 
Person { Second, 

I Third. 

Number ..... J Singular, 
i Plural. 
J Active, 
( Passive. 

Predicate of what ? 



Voice 



1. From what? 



2. Class 



3. Use. 



Verbals. 



r Present, 
Participle . . . { Past, 

I Past Perfect. 

Root-Infinitive \ Present > 
I Perfect. 

l Participial Infinitive. 



Subject, object, complement, or modifier 
of what? 



146 



LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 



CHAPTER XIV. 
Classes of Adverbs. 



He works outside. 
Mary died yesterday. 
Wait patiently. 



This book is entirely new. 
This lesson is very short. 
Perhaps he knows no better. 



Where does he work? When did Mary die? In what 
manner shall you wait ? How new is the book ? How 
short is the lesson? Are you sure that he knows no 
better, or do you assert it doubtfully ? 

Adverbs that tell where, are adverbs of place. 
Thus: — 

" here 
there 



He walked 



up 

below 
forth 
etc. 



Adverbs that tell when, are adverbs of time. 
Thus: — 

~ now 

soon 

often 

never 

next 

first 

twice 

presently 

frequently 
I etc. 



He comes < 



CLASSES OF ADVERBS. 



147 



Adverbs that tell hoiv, are adverbs of manner. 

Thus : — 

f thus 

ill 

well 
He speaks ^ otherwise 

truly 

quietly 
\> etc. 

Adverbs of manner that represent the assertion as 
positive or doubtful, are modal adverbs. Thus : — 



It is < 


f accordingly 

possibly 

probably 

certainly 

perhaps 
» not 


► true. 


Adverbs that tell how much, ar( 


3 adverbs of degree 


ius: — 


r almost 
scarcely 
greatly 




I am < 


very 
more 
little 
least 
completely 


- glad. 



Carefully compare the following : — 

He lives there = He lives in that place. 

The ship sails now = The ship sails at this time. 

He walks carefully = He walks with care. 

She is excessively proud = She is proud to excess. 

Hence we see that a phrase may do the work of an 
adverb. Likewise a clause may be used. 



148 LANGUAGE AND GBAMMAB. 

Tell what question is answered by each of the phrases 
and clauses in the following : — 

1. We dine at one o'clock. 

2. It was thrown into the river. 

3. They came in great haste. 

4. He was gone all day. 

5. I come to bury Ccesar. 

6. Bread too hard to eat was given them. 

7. Chestnuts fall when the frost comes. 

8. Come as the wind comes. 

9. I will go, since you ask it. 

10. He studies that he may succeed. 

11. I will go if I am needed. 

The phrase, to bury Ccesar, and the clauses in 9 and 
10, tell why. Adverbs that tell why, are adverbs of 
cause. Clauses like that in 11 are called adverb 
clauses of condition. 

Now read these sentences : — 

This is the house where he was born. 
This is the house in which he was born. 

In the first sentence what connects the clause with 
the principal assertion ? In the second sentence what 
connects the clause with the principal assertion ? Which 
connects the clause with what word? In which modi- 
fies was born like what part of speech ? Are where and 
in which equivalents? What double duty does where 
perform ? 

Adverbs that connect as well as modify are called 
conjunctive adverbs. Thus : — 



( when 

while 
He walks { -, 

' where 



as 



I walk. 



CLASSES OF ADVERBS. 149 

( how \ 

I why I 
He asked { -, VI came, 

j whence j 

I when j 

Note. — A conjunctive adverb modifies the verb of the clause 
which it connects with some other word in the sentence. The 
clause itself modifies the word to which it is joined. 

How, when, tvhere, and why, when used to introduce 
questions, are interrogative adverbs ; as : — 



How 

When 
Where 
Why ) 



did you go ? 



Pick out the adverbial words, phrases, clauses, and 
conjunctive adverbs; tell what each modifies and de- 
notes, and to what class it belongs : — 

1. The sun sinks slowly. 

2. Too many eyes are gazing. 

3. William went there yesterday. 

4. Always speak the truth. 

5. How dark the clouds are ! 

6. When will he come ? 

7. He arose at a very early hour. 

8. The air is very clear, very still, and tenderly sad in its 

serene brightness. 

9. How seldom a good man inherits honor and wealth ! 

10. The noblest monuments gradually decay. 

11. It is too late for repentance now. 
. 12. Where is the boy ? 

13. Loud shouts of merriment burst from the happy group. 

14. Pride goeth before destruction. 

15. The wolves prowled around the house. 

16. Nothing great can be accomplished without labor. 

17. The orders of the officers were heard above the din of battle. 

18. When he falls, he falls as I do. 
19= His face did shine as the sun. 



150 LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

20. Come when the clock strikes nine. 

21. When the winds begin to blow, we generally go below. 

22. Take her up tenderly, 

Lift her with care, 

Fashioned so slenderly, 

Young, and so fair. 

Supply suitable adverbs : — 

1. The lark sings in the clear heavens. 

2. Assistance was given, and received. 

3. The appearances of Nature are changing. 

4. The archer handled his bow . 

5. The terrified animal rushed through the arena. 

6. The lady was attired. 

7. The boy was warned of his danger. 

8. Men pursue fortune. 

9. soared the eagle. 

10. Bad habits are too acquired. 

11. The moon shone . 

12. The ship was driven . 

13. The boy wrote his exercise . 

14. Eliza dances . 

15. Judge not of your neighbor. 

16. The soldiers were attached to their general. 

17. Fortune does not attend merit. 

18. He spoke of her ability as a teacher. 

19. This girl writes a letter. 

20. The wind is howling about the house. 

21. Call if he does not hear. 

22. often does the postman call? 

23. The lightning struck that tall tree. 

24. Speak to the poor man. 

25. The breakers dashed on the rocks. 

26. Read your lesson and . 



MODIFICATION OF ADVEBBS. 151 



CHAPTER XV. 
Modification of Adverbs. 

Adverbs in general have no change of form. A few, 
however, are compared like adjectives ; as, soon, sooner, 
soonest. 

Many adverbs (especially those ending in ly*) are 
given a comparative or a superlative meaning by the 
use of more and most, or less and least. 

Sometimes different words are used in making the 
comparison : — 

Ida reads well. 

She is learning to read better. 

She will soon read best. 

Name the adverbs ; and compare, either by change of 
form or by the use of equivalent phrases, such as can 
be compared : — 

1. He speaks slowly. 

2. He speaks much too fast. 

3. She rose early in the morning, and soon finished her 

work. 

4. Did you call once, or twice? 

5. I am very well pleased. 

6. She was willing to take a more humble part. 

7. These are the most important mountain ranges. 

8. She came immediately. 

9. This will never do. 

10. It is rather warm. 

11. How much farther are you going? 

12. He spoke less pleasantly. 



152 LANGUAGE AND GBAMMAB. 

Make sentences showing the use of the words in the 
following table as adjectives and as adverbs : — 



Positive. 


Comparative. 




Superlative. 


well 


better 




best 


ill (badly) 


worse 




worst 


much 


more 




most 


little 


less 




least 


far 


farther (or 


further) 


farthest (or furthest) 



Change the adverbs into equivalent phrases : — 

1. He is to be treated kindly. 

2. Time should not be spent idly. 

3. He behaved imprudently. 

4. The pupils read distinctly. 

5. You are doubtless correct. 

6. I will stay here. 

7. Study the lesson thoroughly. 

8. The judge decided promptly. 

9. Measure the distance accurately. 

10. She was fashionably dressed. 

11. He speaks French fluently. 

12. We waited for you patiently. 

13. Where have you been ? 

14. Where are you going ? 

15. When will you return ? 

Supply adverbs expressing possibility, probability, or 
certainty : — 

1. He will come, but it is not certain. 

2. he could not have heard you, else he would have 

answered. 

3. he did not hear me, but I fear he did. 

4. He said he should come ; so I assured my friends that 

he would be present. 

5. He may have seen you ; but if he had, a civil boy, as he 

is, would have tried to help you. 

6. That vessel will be wrecked if the pilot is not more 

careful. 

7. She said that she would come, but did not promise to do so. 



MODIFICATION OF ADVERBS. 153 

Of what part of speech is each italicized word or 

phrase : — 

1. It stood yonder. 

2. Yonder house is sold. 

3. Did you go far ? 

4. I come from afar country. 

5. The lesson is easy to get. 

6. To get the lesson is easy. 

7. You are so rude. 

8. Do not talk so. 

9. He is very sick. 

10. He is the very man. 

11. You shall certainly go. 

12. Come up. 

13. Come up stairs. 

14. Are you well to-day? 

15. You have done well. 

16. I am no better. 

17. I have been ill. 

18. He rests little. 

19. I have no work. 

20. I was treated ill. 

21. He has little rest. 

22. Man wants but little here below. 

23. The book lies on the table. 

24. The book on the table is mine. 

25. From hill to hill the echo sounds. 

26. To be ridiculed is not pleasant. 

27. He means to accomplish his purpose. 

28. The means to accomplish his purpose were wanting. 

29. They saw her sitting on the damp ground. 

30. Her sitting on the damp ground was injurious. 

Give sentences containing adverbs made from — 
large just terrible 

brave entire occasional 

noble honest steady 

careful public bright 

Examples — bold-ly, feeb-ly, f rantic-al-ly, angrz-ly. 



154 



LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 



Diagram the following sentences : — 

1. Guard against the sudden impulse of anger. 

"[You] 

r the 
Guard | against impulse | ■{ sudden 
I of anger 

2. In the morning they spoke more calmly. 

Tthey 
spoke I {In morning | the 
( calmly | more 

3. Lilies grow where the ground is moist. 

("Lilies 

("ground | the 

L-° is \ moist 

(where 

All conjunctive adverbs are underscored, as the word 
where in the diagram. 

4. I know where I was born. 

[_know || , . , 

•- was born | where 

5. I remember the house where I was born, 
"i 



the 



remember || house | 



P 



was born I where 



6. Oh, what a tangled web we weave 
When first we practice to deceive ! 

(Oh) 

r what 
web | 1 a 
we I tangled 
practice || to deceive 
( I (when 
1 1 first" 



MODIFICATION OF ADVERBS. 155 

7. When does the moon change ? 

8. Can yon tell wherein they differ ? 

9. Who knows whence he came? 

10. Where there is a will there is a way. 

11. When the wine is in, the wit is ont. 

12. I know a bank where the wild thyme grows. 

13. Whither I go ye know not. 

14. I came immediately when I heard yon call. 

15. Why did yon not answer when I spoke to yon ? 

16. He wonld not tell where he had been. 

17. I have always assisted him when I conld. 

18. Yon will certainly tell me why you are going? 

19. He can go whenever he desires to do so. 



PARSING OF THE ADVERB. 

An adverb is parsed by stating : — 

Class. — Place, time, manner, degree, cause, condition, 
conjunctive, or interrogative. 

Degree of Comparison. — Positive, comparative, or 
superlative. 

Use. — Limiting or connecting. 

Model. — The ship sailed yesterday. 

Yesterday is an adverb of time, cannot be compared, 
and limits the verb sailed. 



QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 

1. What is an adverb ? 

2. Name the classes and define each. 

3. What question do adverbs of place answer ? 

4. Give sentences containing adverbs and adverbial phrases and 

clauses of place. 

5. What questions are answered by adverbs of time, of manner, 

and of degree ? Give sentences containing adverbs, adverbial 
phrases, and adverbial clauses denoting time, degree, or 
manner. 



156 LANGUAGE AND GBAMMAB. 

6. Name some conjunctive adverbs. 

7. What double duty do they perform ? 

8. What adverbs are used interrogatively ? 

9. What modification have adverbs ? 

10. In what three ways are they compared ? 

11. Name some adjectives, and form adverbs from each. 

12. What is the best manner of comparing such adverbs ? 

13. Give five adjectives that may be used as adverbs, and give the 

comparison of each. 

14. Illustrate each as adjective and as adverb by sentences. 

15. How are conjunctive adverbs diagrammed ? 

16. Give a sentence containing an adverb used in a limiting sense. 

17. Give a sentence containing an adverb used as a connective. 

18. How is an adverb parsed ? 

SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW. 
Adverb. 

f Place, 

Time, 

Manner, 

Degree, 

Cause, 
- Condition. 



Classes 



Modification .... Comparison. 

Verb, 

Adjec 

I Adverb. 

set clause 

To ask questions. 



f To limit «j Adjective, 



Uses . .4 

i To connect clauses. 



CLASSES OF PREPOSITIONS. 157 

CHAPTER XVI. 
Classes of Prepositions. 

Howard hid behind the tree. 

The bird flew over the house. 

Crawford was pale with fear. 

Alice spoke in anger. 

Fred cut his foot with an axe. 

Owen was struggling for life. 

Miss Garber started after sunset. 

The cause of temperance is gaining. 

The leg of the table was broken. 
Where did Howard hide ? Could he have hidden in the tree ? 
What word in the sentence chiefly shows where? Where did 
the bird fly ? Could the bird have flown into the house, or around 
the house ? Which word in the sentence gives the direction chiefly ? 
Why was Crawford pale? What caused him to be pale? What 
word shows the relation of the cause (fear) to the effect (pale- 
ness) ? How, in what manner, did Alice speak? What word 
shows the relation between her speaking and her mood or manner ? 
With what instrument did Fred cut his foot? What word shows 
the relation of the instrument to the cutting ? For what purpose 
was Owen struggling? What word chiefly signifies purpose here? 
When did Miss Garber start ? Could she have started before sun- 
set, or at sunset ? What word shows chiefly the exact time ? Do 
we mean that every cause is gaining ? Only the cause referring to 
what ? Which is the relation-word ? What part of the table was 
broken ? What word shows the relation of this part to the whole ? 

Hence the relations expressed by prepositions are 

chiefly those of — 

r They live in a cottage. ) Rm {n 
It stands on the hill. ) 



Place . . < 



I He came from France. ) Motion ivith dir 
^ She ran into the street. ) rection. 



158 LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

Cause They suffered from hunger. 

Manner He wrote without care. 

Means, Instrument . j He succeeded by industry. 

Pu r>ose I They searched the place for hidden treas- 



He dug it up with a mattock. 
They searched the ph 
ure. 

Time | They came by night. 

( You may stay until Si 
She bought a book of 
Miss Rickey's essay o 
There is no question as to his ability. 



may stay until Saturday. 
r She bought a book of music. 



Reference ■{ Miss Rickey's essay on Renunciation. 

r The leaves of the book. 

Part to the whole . . \ Which °f ? on f w it? 

i The trunk of the elephant. 

^ The mayor of Boston. 

Point out the prepositions ; name the object of each, 
and the word to which the object is connected by the 
preposition ; tell, if possible, of what kind the relation 
is, — whether of place, time, or cause, etc. ; what the 
phrase modifies, and what part of speech it is : — 

1. She is insane from anxiety. 

2. Will you be absent from home ? 

3. We found rosebuds pink at the tips. 

4. The house by the river is a hotel. 

5. He came from the city. 

6. Those on the shelf are sold. 

7. The bucket hung in the well. 

8. The path of industry leads to success. 

9. My friend was with his regiment. 

10. Birds in great numbers fly over this grove. 

11. Some with blue plumage have dropped a handful of feathers 

for me. 

12. Quails from the North meet jays from the South. 

13. There are eggs in the nest near the vine. 

14. The mother-bird is mottled at the throat and along the breast. 

15. The river runs — from the mountains, by the fields, near 

the church, round the town, through the common, over 
the rocks, to the sea. 



CLASSES OF PBEPOSITIONS. 159 

Supply suitable prepositions : — 

1. He wrapped his cloak closely him. 

2. The visitor passed the gate. 

3. Swallows build the eaves of the houses. 

4. The mighty Andes rise the clouds. 

5. The rich man distributed his wealth his relations. 

6. The two brothers divided the portion equally them. 

7. The popular candidate was received acclamations. 

8. He had now fled the reach of his pursuers. 

9. The sun is eclipsed the passage of the moon over his 

disk. 

10. The preacher discoursed the vanity of earthly wishes. 

11. Encourage a distaste idle pursuits. 

PARSING OF THE PREPOSITION. 

A preposition is parsed by stating the words which it 
connects. 

Model. — The lady passed by the gate. 

By is a preposition, and connects the noun gate with 
the verb passed. 

Note. — The noun or pronoun used after a preposition is always 
in the objective case. 

QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 

1. Define preposition. 

2. Why is this part of speech so called ? 

3. What do prepositions express ? 

4. Name the principal prepositions in our language. 

5. What is meant by the object of a preposition ? 

6. Illustrate. 

7. When are prepositional phrases adjective ? 

8. Give an example. 

9. When is a prepositional phrase adverbial ? 

10. Give an example. 

11. Is the object of a preposition necessarily the word nearest to it? 



160 



LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 



12. How can you tell the object of a preposition? 

13. Explain the difference between correspond to and cor\ 

with. 

14. Between die of, die by, and die for. 

15. Name the classes of prepositions. 

16. Give an example of each. 

17. How should a preposition be parsed ? 



SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW. 
Preposition. 



Classes 



Use 



Place, 

Cause, 

Manner, 

Means, 

Instrument, 

Purpose, 

Time, 

Reference, 

Part to the whote. 

Links its object with some 
word in the sentence. 



CLASSES OF CONJUNCTIONS. 161 



CHAPTER XVII. 
Classes of Conjunctions. 

1. Who thinks or dreams of me ? 

2. She walks gracefully and firmly. 

3. Hamlet was actually insane, or he pretended to be so. 

4. He said that I should go, and that he would remain. 

5. He waited until the train left. 

6. We know that the moon is uninhabited. 

7. The fact that the moon is uninhabited is well known. 

Are thinks and dreams independent of each other; does either 
modify the other? What word joins them? Parts independent 
of each other are of the same rank or order. What part of speech 
is gracefully? Why? What part of speech is firmly? Why? 
Are these two words of the same rank? What word joins them? 
Are the two assertions in 3 of the same rank? What word joins 
them ? What is the object of said ? What part of speech is that I 
should go ? What part of speech is that he ivould remain ? Are 
these clauses of the same rank? What word joins them? 

All such joining words are said to be co-ordinative. 

What word joins each clause of sentence 4 to the principal 
assertion ? Are the principal assertion and a clause of the same 
or of different rank ? What part of speech is the clause in 5 ? 
What word joins it to the principal assertion ? Are the parts 
thus joined of the same or of different rank? What part of speech 
is the clause in 6 ? What word joins it to the principal assertion ? 
Does this word join parts of the same or of different rank ? What 
part of speech is the clause in 7? What word joins it to fact? 
Are fact and the clause of the same or of different rank ? 

Since modifying parts are sub-ordinate, the conjunc- 
tions that introduce them are said to be subordinative. 



162 LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

Co-ordinative conjunctions are those that connect 
parts of equal rank, parts neither of which modifies the 
other. 

We must overcome evil, or it will overcome us. 
Men may come, and men may go, but I go on forever. 
True friends are the same in prosperity and adversity. 
I know not when he came, nor when he went. 

Subordinative conjunctions are those that introduce 
clauses, or join parts of unequal rank. 

1. I am proud that I am an American. 

after 



2. I did the work 



3. I did the work 



e J m k, h e or d ere (i it to be done. 
ivhen I 
h where J 
fas 1 

because \ ■> -, j-.lj.ij 

J^ he ordered it to be done. 
for 

since J 



4. I will do the work if he says that I must. 

5. I will not do the work unless he says that I must. 

6. He was so weak that he fell. 

rthat -\ 

7. He studied hard { so that y he might be great. 

I in order that J 

The dependent clause in the first sentence modifies 
what word ? It is therefore what part of speech ? The 
dependent clauses in 2 and 3 are what part of speech? 
Which denote cause? Which denote time? Which 
denotes place ? 

What are the complete adverbial modifiers of will do 
in 4 and 5? That I must modifies what word? What 
kind of a complement is it? That he fell is what part 
of speech ? Why ? 



CLASSES OF CONJUNCTIONS. 163 

Put the dependent clauses first in some of these ex- 
amples, then read the sentences. Does the meaning 
remain the same ? Thus : — 

Since he ordered it to be done, I did the work. 
If he says that I must, I will do the work. 
That he might be great, he studied hard. 

Supply suitable conjunctions ; tell whether they are 
co-ordinative or subordinative, and why ; what part of 
speech each clause is ; whether the sentence is simple, 
complex, or compound : — 

1. I shall not go I am invited. 

2. you wish to learn, you must study. 

3. I care not it rains snows. 

4. Margie Oril have come to see me ; they cannot 

stay long. 

5. John, James, William went to Boston ; Charles 

went to Chicago. 

6. I shall expect you it rains. 

7. She knows she is beautiful. 

8. I remained the school was dismissed. 

9. William Rufus reigned William the Conqueror died. 

10. The riflemen fired the bugle sounded. 

Supply suitable conjunctions and diagram the sen- 
tences : — 

1. you do not sow, you will not reap. 

2. the lazy sailor had thrown out the rope at once, the 

drowning boy would have been saved. 

3. printing was invented, people wrote books with pen 

and ink. 

4. printing was invented, books became much cheaper. 

Make sentences, and in each use one of the following 
words : — 

Until, before, since, still, so, and, but, ere, like, or, either, only, 
if, except, because, also, yet, as, that, besides, without, therefore, 
nevertheless. 



164 LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

PARSING OF THE CONJUNCTION. 

A conjunction is parsed by stating : — 
Class. — Co-ordinate or subordinate. 
Use. — Connecting what. 

Model. — You will not reap if you do not sow. 

if is a subordinate conjunction, and connects the two 
clauses, you will not reap and you do not sow. 

QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 

1. What is a conjunction? 

2. What is the difference between co-ordinate conjunctions and 

subordinate conjunctions ? 

3. What is the difference between conjunctions and prepositions ? 

4. How do they agree ? 

5. How do they differ ? 

SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW. 
Conjunction. 

Classes { Co-ordinate 

( Subordinate 

jj ( Connect words, phrases, and 

( clauses. 

Note. — The interjection has no grammatical connection with 
the rest of the sentence, and has no modifications. 



ELEMENTS OF SENTENCES. 165 



CHAPTER XVIII. 

Elements of Sentences. 

The elements of a sentence are the parts used to ex- 
press the different ideas that make up the complete 
thought. 

The principal elements are the naked subject and the 
naked predicate. 

The naked subject is the unmodified subject. It is 
either a noun or the equivalent of a noun : — 

1. A rolling stone gathers no moss. 

2. The good die young. 

3. Two of a trade can ne'er agree. 

4. Reading stories is a pleasant occupation. 

5. To deceive a friend is to lie basely. 

6. That he will succeed is clear. 

The naked predicate is the unmodified predicate. 
It is — 

1. A verb : — 

1. The snow melted rapidly yesterday. 

2. Every man must educate himself. 

2. A copulative verb and its complement : — 

1. Despatch is the soul of business. 

2. Few persons are perfectly happy. 

3. The stars look very small. 

4. Young hearts never grow old. 

5. Giving quickly is giving twice. 

6. To give quickly is to give twice. 

7. The fact is that he is blind. 

8. His words were " It does move." 



166 LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

Subordinate elements are modifying or dependent 
elements, words, phrases, and clauses. According to 
use they are : — 

1. Adjective : — 

1. Dull boys have become famous men. 

2. The path of industry is the path to success. 

3. Whittier, the Quaker poet, wrote "Snow-bound." 

4. Children's manners show their training. 

5. A farm sloping to the south is for sale. 

6. He that liveth well liveth long. 

7. Remember the maxim, " Honesty is the best policy." 

2. Objective : — 

1. We should hide the faults of others. 

2. Every man should learn to govern himself 

3. They finished reciting verses. 

4. We knew that he icas wrong. 

5. " Know thyself" he said. 

6. She was wise in making that choice. 

3. Adverbial : — 

1. He walked slowly. 

2. The paths of glory lead but to the grave. 

3. A messenger was sent to convey the news. 

4. They shouted till the ivoods rang. 

5. He rested a few minutes. 

The entire or modified subject (as, dull boys, a farm 
sloping to the south} is often called the complete or logi- 
cal subject. The entire or modified predicate (as, fin- 
ished reciting his verses, Jcnetv that he was wrong} is 
likewise called the complete or logical predicate. 

Independent elements are the words and phrases not 
related to other parts of the sentence : — 

1. Papa, who makes it snow? 

2. Alas ! poor creature ! how she must have suffered. 

3. Thy rod and thy staff, they comfort me. 

4. Well, shall we go ? 

5. To speak plainly, you are my enemy, and I am yours. 



ELEMENTS OF SENTENCES. 167 

Select the independent elements : — 

1. Vain men ! how little do we know what to pray for. 

2. Caesar cried, " Help me, Cassius, or I sink." 

3. O solitude, where are the charms 
That sages have seen in thy face ? 

4. The sea, the sea, the boundless sea ! 
Let us rest beside the sea. 

5. O Father ! touch the east, and light the day. 

6. Roll on, thou deep and dark blue ocean, roll! 

7. Mr. President, my object is peace. 

8. The Pilgrim fathers, where are they ? 

9. The flag of the free, O long may it wave ! 
10o Permit me, sir, to add another circumstance. 

11. " Youth ! " he said, " I forgive thee." 

12. My country ! 'tis of thee, 
Sweet land of liberty, 

Of thee I sing. 

Note. — Remember that a word, phrase, or clause is adjective 
if it modifies a noun or pronoun ; objective, if it is the object of 
a preposition or an action-word ; adverbial, if it modifies an adjec- 
tive, an adverb, or an action-word, and is not an object. 

The parts of a sentence that connect the elements are 
connectives. 

Frequent the company of jour betters. 
Beauty is the mark which God sets on virtue. 
Make the house where gods may dwell, clean, entire, and beau- 
tiful. 
He failed because he was dishonest. 

Subordinate elements according to their structure maj T 
be simple, compound, or complex : that is, a modifier 
may itself be unmodified ; it may consist of two or more 
co-ordinate parts ; or it may be modified : — 

1. Idle boys become poo?- men. 

2. To waste in. youth is to want in age. 

3. We found him beaten, wounded, and deserted. 



168 LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

4. Remarkably bright and evidently happy children were playing 

on the lawn. 

5. The man approached very cautiously. 

6. We may cover a multitude of sins — with the white robe of 

charity. 

7. The days are made on a loom, whereof the warp and woof are 

past and future time. 

The chief part of a complex modifier is its base. 
Thus, bright and happy, on lawn (preposition and its 
object), cautiously, multitude, with robe, on loom, are the 
bases in 4, 5, 6, and 7. 

Principal elements (naked subject, naked predicate) 
may be simple or compound : — 

Bad habits gather by unseen degrees. 

To dare is great, but to bear is greater. 

Temperance fortifies and purifies the heart. 

A beautiful poem or picture is a refining influence. 

How wonderfully have science and invention advanced ! 

Tell whether the sentences are simple, complex, or 
compound ; pick out the principal elements of each ; 
also the subordinate elements, and tell whether these 
are simple, compound, or complex ; what part of speech 
each is, and why ; whether it is a phrase or a clause ; 
name the complements, the kind of each, and also the 
connectives : — 

A boy, whose parents were dead, was so poor that he had noth- 
ing left but the clothes on his back and a loaf of bread in his hand. 
Putting his trust in God, he went out into the world. He traveled 
over hills and through valleys until he met an old woman. She 
begged him for something to eat. He gave her the whole loaf of 
bread, and went on his journey. Next, he met three little chil- 
dren crying and shivering with the cold. They prayed for some 
clothes to make them warm. So to one child he gave his hat, to 
another his coat, and to another his shoes and stockings. It was 
now growing dark, and the boy came to a big forest. He was cold 



ELEMENTS OF SENTENCES. 169 

and hungry, and had hardly any clothes left to cover his body. 
But when he went into the forest, a shower of silver dollars came 
down from the sky. They were shaped like stars, and were sent 
by God to the boy to reward him for his goodness. He had a warm 
supper and bed that night, in a cabin in the woods. All the rest 
of his life he lived in wealth and happiness. 

Write sentences, using the following words, first as 
adjectives, then as nouns : — 

few Methodist idle 

wise much Irish 

Indian this these 

proud ignorant some 

Substitute single words for prepositional phrases and 
italicized parts ; then give the part of speech : — 

1. Men of sense act with caution. 

2. They listened with attention. 

3. They acted with calmness and with wisdom. 

4. A man of truth will be believed. 

5. I went of my own accord. 

6. It can be done without difficulty. 

7. The statement cannot be denied. 

8. My labors are of no utility. 

9. Were the proceedings according to law? 

10. We were wet to the skin. 

11. An attack that could not be resisted. 

12. He saw several mummies that were found in Egypt. 

13. My father spoke with kindness, but with firmness. 

14. The queen replied with pride. 

15. Yellow fever is in this place at the present time. 

16. Anna wears a dress of silk and a bonnet of straw. 

17. Harry has a hat of felt and a jacket of wool. 

18. Who lives in this place? 

19. The sentence must be read with distinctness. 

20. The light faded by degrees. 

21. Men of piety are esteemed. 

22. The sun throws light on a whole hemisphere. 

23. The river flows without ceasing. 



170 LANGUAGE AND GBAMMAR. 

24. The old man spoke with sadness. 

25. The same occurrence happened every day. 

26. We ascended the hill at the break of day. 

27. We prosecuted our journey in spite of the bad weather. 

28. The cuckoo pays us a visit each year. 

29. The bird was secured on the instant. 

30. He replied in a haughty tone. 

31. America was not discovered by chance. 

32. There were no railways at that time. 

33. Captain Cook sailed round the globe. 

Select the action-words in the following sentences: — 

The traveler walked to the top of the hill and surveyed the 

country. 
Walking to the top of the hill, the traveler surveyed the 

country. 

What two things in the first sentence did the traveler 
do ? Are both of these asserted ? Did he, in the sec- 
ond sentence, perform the same acts? Is eash act 
asserted here ? Which of the action-words asserts ? 
An action not asserted is said to be assumed. 

Make sentences, changing the assumed action of ver- 
bals to the asserted action of verbs : — 

1. studying music 4. captured in the act of stealing 

2. seeing the various displays 5. the horse running 

3. the factory having closed 6. the wind blowing 

Change assumed to asserted action, then name the 
principal elements : — 

Models. 

(1) They boarded the vessel lying in the harbor. 
They boarded the vessel that lay in the harbor. 

(2) Wealth acquired dishonestly will prove a curse. 
Wealth that is acquired dishonestly will prove a curso. 
If wealth is acquired dishonestly it will prove a curse. 



ELEMENTS OF SENTENCES. 171 

(3) Being detected, he surrendered to the officer. 
He was detected, and surrendered to the officer. 
As he was detected, he surrendered to the officer. 
When he was detected, he surrendered to the officer. 

1. The general, riding to the front, led the attack. 

2. The man, having fired, ran away. 

3. The balloon, shooting into the clouds, was soon lost to sight. 

4. The sun, rising, dispelled the mists. 

5. Csesar, having crossed the Rhone, gave battle. 

Substitute phrases or clauses for the italicized parts, 
and name the part of speech : — 

Models. 

(1) Wealthy men should give liberally. 
Men of wealth should give with liberality. 
Men who are wealthy should give with liberality. 

(2) With patience he might have succeeded. 

If he had been patient, he might have succeeded. 

(3) His guilt or innocence is uncertain. 
Whether he is guilty or innocent is uncertain. 

1. The sun was then thought to revolve around the earth. 

2. The studious boy was rewarded. 

3. He boldly attacked the enemy. 

4. He rode skilfully. 

5. The vessels were of wood. 

6. He acted nobly. 

7. He believed the earth to be round. 

8. The manner of his escape is a mystery. 

9. The rain having ceased, we started. 

Change complex sentences into simple ones : — 

Models. 

(1) Since I saw you, I have heard from my father. 
Since seeing you, I have heard from my father. 

(2) There are many ills that we cannot avoid. 
There are many unavoidable ills. 



172 LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

(3) Alexander, who conquered the world, sighed for more 

worlds to conquer. 
Alexander, conqueror of the world, sighed for more worlds 

to conquer. 
Alexander, having conquered the world, sighed for more 

worlds to conquer. 

(4) Can you trust a man who habitually lies ? 
Can you trust an habitual liar ? 

1. The author, who is a woman, lives in Boston. 

2. Help those that are weak. 

3. Those that are rich should help those that are poor. 

4. Read such books as will be helpful. 

5. Goldsmith, who wrote " The Deserted Village," was born in 

Ireland. 

6. We lost all the fish that we caught. 

7. The gate that was broken is now mended. 

8. The dog that barks does not bite. 

9. As he walked toward the bridge, he met his friend. 

10. When he had spoken two hours, the member resumed his 

seat. 

11. Socrates declared that virtue is its own reward. 

12. After he had suppressed the conspiracy, he led his troops 

into Italy. 

13. When the boy saw his father, he ran to embrace him. 

14. When the teacher found his pupils idle, he reproved them. 

15. After the gentleman had settled his affairs, he left the 

country. 

What part of speech is the clause in each of the fore- 
going sentences, and why ? 

Expand simple sentences into complex sentences, and 
name the part of speech of each clause : — 

Models. 

(1) Large whales are seldom found. 
Whales that are large are seldom found. 

(2) De Foe, author of " Robinson Crusoe" w r as an Englishman. 
De Foe, who wrote " Robinson Crusoe" was an Englishman. 



ELEMENTS OF SENTENCES. 173 

(3) Having been noisy, the boys were punished. 

Since they had been noisy, the boys were punished. 
The boys, since they had been noisy, were punished. 
The boys were punished because they were noisy. 

1. It will dry after sunrise. 

2. We must hasten to meet our friends. 

3. He promised me to go at once. 

4. A word to the wise 
Will always suffice. 

5. Cradled in the camp, Napoleon was the darling of the army. 

6. Having approved of the plan, the king put it into execution. 

7. Satan, incensed with indignation, stood unterrified. 

8. My friend, seeing me in need, offered his services. 

9. James, being weary with his journey, sat down on the wall. 

10. The owl, hidden in the tree, hooted through the night. 

11. His supplies having been exhausted, the general capitulated. 

12. We returned home, our work being finished. 

13. The jury having been sworn, the trial proceeded. 

14. The river being impassable, no attempt was made to cross it. 

15. Sheridan, hearing the guns, galloped from Winchester to 

take command. 

16. The Romans, having conquered the world, were unable to 

conquer themselves. 

17. He went to town to buy a horse. 

Change the compound sentences into complex sen- 
tences, and the rest either into compound sentences or 
into simple sentences with compound predicates : — 



Models. 

(1) The sun rose, and we started. 
When the sun rose we started. 

(2) Charity, which begins at home, should not stay there. 
Charity begins at home, but should not stay there. 

(3) W r hen he reached the middle of his speech, he stopped. 
He reached the middle of his speech, and stopped. 



174 LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

(4) Those living in the Arctic regions need much oily food. 
Live in the Arctic regions, and you will need much oily food. 

(5) That you have wronged me doth appear in this. 
You have wronged me, and it doth appear in this. 

(6) Avoid swearing : it is a wicked habit. 
Avoid swearing, which is a wicked habit. 

1. With the dawn of morning, the clouds disperse. 

2. Prayer leads the heart to God, who always listens. 

3. When he asked me the question, I answered him courteously. 

4. Morse, the man who invented the telegraph, was a public 

benefactor. 

5. When spring comes, the birds will return. 

6. Pearls are valuable, and they are found in oyster-shells. 

7. Dickens wrote " David Copperfield," and he died in 1870. 

8. Some animals are vertebrates, and they have a backbone. 

9. We looked for a heavy shower, because the clouds were very 

dark. 

10. Emma could not read the story to me, because James had 

taken away the book. 

11. The child, playing by the river, fell into the water. 

12. My watch, losing time, was repaired by the jeweler. 

13. The sun, rising, scattered the fog. 

14. They went on board the vessel lying in the harbor. 

15. Catching the thief, they find the watch in his pocket. 

16. The balloon, rising rapidly, soon passed out of sight. 

17. A boy, riding an elephant, led the procession. 

Select the adjective, adverbial, and noun phrases, 
giving your reasons : — 

1. At sea the distant clouds seem low. 

2. Regret for a misspent past will be useless. 

3. My workmen were once my employers. 

4. A collection of curiosities may become a museum. 

5. The miser willed his property to a college. 

6. Stone walls do not a prison make. 

7. Foolish people often feel wise. 

8. The Muses were the goddesses of art. 

9. Every day in thy life is a leaf in thy history. 



ELEMENTS OF SENTENCES. 175 

10. The cat's tongue is covered with thousands of little sharp 

cones, pointing toward the throat. 

11. The men found knives and forks on the tables. 

12. I will give you a key to the story of the fairy. 

13. Who would wish to be forgotten ? 

14. They refused to release the prisoner. 

15. Do you regret having done no more ? 

16. To get wisdom is a noble ambition. 

17. Making money absorbed his time. 

18. Many have tried to reach the North Pole. 

19. Columbus won immortality by discovering a new world. 

20. To try again is to succeed. 

Tell in what respect the above verbals are like verbs, 
and in what they are like nouns and adjectives. 

Make three sentences with noun-complements, three 
with predicate adjectives, and three with predicate 
nouns. 

Write sentences in which the subject shall be modi- 
fied by — 

1. An adjective. 4. A participial phrase. 

2. A noun or pronoun denoting 5. An infinitive phrase. 

ownership. 6. A prepositional phrase. 

3. A noun in apposition. 7. A clause. 

Write sentences in which the verb shall be modified 
by- 

f Place, 
| Time, 

1. An adverbial clause of ^ Cause, 

Manner, 
Condition. 

2. A complex adverbial element whose f An adverb > 

base is 1 An infinitive > 

I A prepositional adjunct. 

3. A complex objective element whose f noun > 

base is i An infinitive, 

I A clause. 



176 LANGUAGE AND GBAMMAB. 

THE ORDER OF ANALYSIS. 

1. State whether the sentence is simple, complex, or 
compound. 

2. Whether it is declarative, interrogative, impera- 
tive, or exclamatory. 

3. The principal elements. 

4. The subject and its modifiers. 

5. The verb and its modifiers. 

6. The analysis of phrases and clauses. 

7. The pure connectives, if any. 

8. Independent elements. 

Example. — Sunday is the golden clasp that binds the volume 
of the week. 

Analysis. — This is a complex, declarative sentence; 
the independent clause, Sunday is the golden clasp; the 
dependent clause, that binds the volume of the week. 
In the independent clause, Sunday is the subject, and 
is the golden clasp is the predicate. The predicate is 
composed of the verb is and the attribute clasp, and 
clasp is modified by the adjective elements the and 
golden, and also by the dependent adjective clause that 
binds the volume of the week. In the dependent clause, 
that is the subject, and it also connects the clause to 
clasp ; binds the volume of the iveek is the predicate, 
which is composed of the transitive verb binds, the ob- 
jective element volume, and the adjective phrase of the 
week. In the phrase of the week, of connects volume and 
week, and week is modified by the. 

Note. — Analysis should always be clear, distinct, logical, and 
exhaustive : first, in classifying the sentence ; second, in resolving 
it into its essential elements ; third, in taking the modifying ele- 
ments, if any, to pieces, and telling what offices they perform in 
the structure of the sentence. 






ELEMENTS OF SENTENCES. 



177 



1. Music hath charms to soothe the savage breast. 

["Music 

[_hath || charms | to soothe || breast | ■] e 

Note. — For explanation of characters used in diagramming, 
see page 221. 

2. I neither blamed nor praised him. 

~I 

blamed > 



: o 



> || him 



praised 

3. Harry and Frank study and recite arithmetic and grammar. 
Harry 

: P 
: D 
: £l 

Frank 



study ^ ( arithmetic 

• p '• p 



recite 



p 

C3 
P- 

grammar 



4. Washington, the father of his country, was a great and noble 
man. 

"Washington \ father I \ the 
I of < 



: country | his \ 



was \ man | < 



great 



I noble 

Note. — Observe carefully the signs \ \ inclosing the ex- 
planatory noun and its modifiers. 

5. He meant to kill the man. 

"He 

meant || to kill || man | the 



178 



LANGUAGE AMD GRAMMAR. 



6. His wish was to remain until the next day. 

twish | His 
was \ to remain , , , 

(until day | | J^ 

7. The glass, broken in pieces, lay upon the floor. 

(The 

( broken | in pieces 
Llay | upon floor | the 



rglass | 



8. I saw a gentleman sitting on the porch. 
[I 

( a 



_saw || gentleman 



C sitting | on porch | the 



9. The Christmas-tree, loaded with gifts, presented a beautiful 
appearance. 

(The 



Christmas-tree 



( loaded | with gifts 



presented || appearance 



beautiful 



10. Whether we shall go has not been decided. 

Whether 
we 

shall go 
has been decided | not 

11. We believe that the earth is round. 
"We 

believe II that 



earth | the 
is \ round 



1. I like to sew. 

2. The sun, being low, was pale. 

3. I expect to go to-morrow. 

4. Old Joe tells funny stories. 

5. She promised to call early. 



ELEMENTS OF SENTENCES. 179 

6. The cow eats her grass quietly. 

7. Slight differences of opinion sometimes lead to strife. 

8. The merchant opened his new shop. 

9. Parents love their children. 

10. Mary returned the cloth because she found it too narrow. 

11. The boy's mother tended him with the greatest care. 

12. His illness lasted long. 

13. After many months he recovered somewhat ; but, alas ! the 

malady returned, and hurried him to the grave. 

14. The soldiers, watching their chief, hastened onward. 

15. We saw the men holding their horses. 

16. The children playing in the street heard the bell ringing at 

the house. 

17. The tree planted by my father bears fruit for me. 

18. The moon, hid behind the clouds, gave only a dim light. 

19. Knowledge is power put into practice. 

20. I saw a boy ploughing. 

21. We saw a squirrel seated on the topmost branch of a tall 

tree. 

22. That he was a foreigner was well known. 

23. I am not sure that he did it. 

24. He pushed me, and I fell. 

25. Did you say that Washington never told a lie ? 



SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW. 



1. A noun. 

2. A pronoun. • 

3. An infinitive. 

4. A phrase. 

5. A clause. 

6. Two or more of the above united by 

conjunctions. 



1. The naked subject 
may be 



2. The naked predicate 



1. A verb or verb phrase, transitive or 
intransitive. 

may be ] 2. A copulative verb or verb phrase, 

w r ith its complement. 



180 



LANGUAGE AND GBAMMAB. 



3. A noun or a pronoun 
may be 



1. The subject of a verb. 

2. The complement of a copulative verb. 

r a verb, 

3. The object of -l a verbal, 

I a preposition. 

4. In apposition with another noun or 

pronoun. 

5. Independent. 



A pronoun may be 
used 



f 1. To ask a question. 

2. To connect an adjective clause to the 
noun or pronoun that it modifies. 

3. To introduce a noun clause as sub- 

ject, complement, or object. 



5. An adjective may be ( 1. To complete a copulative verb. 
(2. 



used 



6. A verb may be used 



To limit or modify a noun. 

1. To state a fact. 

2. To express a command. 

3. To ask a question. 



r 



7. An adverb may be 
used 



r 



a verb, 



1. To modify J ^."V 

° I an adjective, 

I- an adverb. 



8. Sentences are com- 
posed of 



9. Elements may be 



10. A connective may be 



w 



To connect a clause to the word that 
it modifies. 

Elements. 
2. Connectives. 



1. Words. 

2. Phrases. 

('Dependent. ["Principal. 

3. Clauses. < Indepen- \ Subordinate. 

^ dent. ^Independent. 
r A preposition. 



As to kind <{ 



J A conjunction. 



I A relative pronoun. 
^ A conjunctive adverb. 



As to use 



Is 



Co-ordinate. 
Subordinate. 



HOW TO USE THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 181 



CHAPTER XIX. 
How to use the Parts of Speech- 

In the arrangement of words to form sentences, or in 
passing judgment on sentences already expressed, cer- 
tain rules both of order and agreement or government 
must be followed. 

The term syntax or synthesis is used in grammar to 
include and refer to these rules* 

RULES OF ORDER. 

1. The usual order of words in a sentence is : first, 
the subject; next, the verb; and lastly (when there 
is one), the object. 

They have eyes. 

2. The adjective commonly precedes the noun. 

The snorting beast began to trot. 

3. The adverb generally follows the verb. 

Time passes quickly. 

4. Possessives are used before, and appositives 
after, the words modified. 

Freedom's battle is ever won. 

Dickens, the English novelist, died in 1870. 

5. Participial expressions are most frequently 
placed appositively. 

The road, winding through a thick forest, leads to a park. 



182 LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

The usual order, however, is often changed ; that is, 
inverted or transposed : — 

(1) Eyes have they. 
Whom did you see ? 
Were others present? 
Is there no hope ? 

There is no place like home. 
Does he want me ? 
Hear ye my words. 

(2) The enemy, equally brave, began the conflict. 
Men ready for work are what the world wants. 

(3) Here we take our stand. 
Softly fades the light of day. 

Around this lovely valley rise the purple hills. 

(4) A professed Catholic, he imprisoned the Pope. 

(5) Reaching for the bell-rope, I pulled it vigorously. 

Change to the usual order, putting the subject 
first : — 

1. Flashed all their sabers bare. 

2. Dark was the night. 

3. There is no help for us. 

4. Which island do the French own ? 

5. There will be no sorrow there. 

6. Here ends the tale. 

7. Across the unknown sea the daring Genoese saw another 

route to India. 

8. Under the spreading chestnut tree 

The village smithy stands. 

9. Duty points, with outstretched fingers, 

Every soul to action high. 
10. How easily and speedily does use breed habit m a man ! 

Rewrite the following, transposing the whole or 
part of each : — 

1. Our faults are many. 

2. And I slew the victor. 

3. We laid him down slowly and sadly. 






HOW TO USE THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 183 

4 The fate of empires depends upon the education of youth. 

5. I saw a bright vision at dead of night. 

6. The master of the district school, 
Brisk wielder of the birch and rule, 

Held at the fire his favored place. 

7. The great and good rest here in lowly graves. 

8. The man was sent to jail for stealing a horse. 

9. The robins were gathering straws to build their nests. 

10. The children could not play out of doors because of the cold. 

11. The boys could not float down the river as the water was so 

low. 

12. Susie and her mother came instead of Joe and his father. 

Change participles into verbs and conjunctions, or 
into verbs and relative pronouns : — 

A little boy, running carelessly along the street, knocked against 
an old woman carrying a basket of eggs on her head. Down fell 
the basket, smashing all the eggs. The thoughtless boy at first 
ran on ; but, looking round and seeing the people staring, and the 
old woman beginning to cry, he turned back, saying, " I am very 
sorry; I would not have knocked against you if I had seen you." 
" Yes, master," replied the old woman, looking sadly at the frag- 
ments of her broken eggs lying about the dirty pavement, "but 
your sorrow will not mend my eggs, nor feed my grandchildren 
waiting for bread at home." 

6. Modifiers should be so placed that their de- 
pendence cannot be mistaken. Note the effect of 
changing the position of only : — 

Only the boy hit the bird. 
The boy only hit the bird. 
The boy hit the bird only. 

Rearrange so that the sentence may convey as clearly 
as possible just the meaning intended : — 

1. A fellow was arrested with short hair. 

2. I saw a man digging a well with a Roman nose. 

3. He died and went to his rest in New York. 



184 LANGUAGE AND GBAMMAB. 

4. Wanted : A room by two gentlemen thirty feet long and 

twenty feet wide. 

5. Some garments were made for the family of thick material. 

6. The vessel was beautifully painted with a tall mast. 

7. I perceived that it had been scoured with half an eye. 

8. A house was built by a mason of brown stone. 

9. A house was built for a clergyman having seven gables. 

10. The old man struck the saucy boy raising the gold-headed 

cane. 

11. We saw a marble bust of Sir Walter Scott entering the ves- 

tibule. 

12. Here is news from a neighbor boiled down. 

13. I found a cent walking over the bridge. 

14. Balboa discovered the Pacific Ocean climbing to the top of 

a mountain. 

15. All rivers are not so rapid. 

16. I should like to visit you very much. 

17. They only lost ten dollars by the transaction. 

18. I only recite in the morning. 

19. I heard all you said very distinctly. 

20. The fruit was sent in a basket which I ate with great relish. 

21. A child was run over by a wagon four years old. 

22. A fine view was obtained from the upper story of Niagara 

Falls. 

23. Rivers sometimes entirely dry up in summer that are roaring 

torrents in spring. 

24. What did people do before soap was invented which is now 

so common ? 

25. How I pity the poor man on such an inclement night who 

has no home to go to ! 



RULES OF AGREEMENT AND GOVERNMENT. 

1. The subject of a sentence is in the nominative 
case. 

2. The object of a transitive verb, of a verbal, or 
of a preposition is in the objective case and should 
have the objective form. 



HOW TO USE THE PARTS OF SPEECH 185 

3. Intransitive and passive verbs and verbals have 
the same case after as before them, when both words 
denote the same person or thing : — 

1 am he. 

I knew it to be him. 

She was called Mabel. 

4. A noun or pronoun directly limiting' another 
noun, and denoting* ownership, is in the possessive 
case and should have the possessive form : — 

The Indian's wigwam gave place to the settler's cabin. 

Note. — This is the only case-inflection of the noun. To show 
separate possession, use the possessive sign after the name of each 
person. To show joint possession, use the sign after the last name 
only. Thus : — 

Henry's, Alfred's, and Ida's books are well preserved. 
Who were Cain and Abel's parents? 

Correct errors in the following : — 

1. It is me. 

2. It was her. 

3. It will not be us. 

4. You are as bad as them. 

5. Them are my books. 

6. Him is older than me. 

7. I am younger than her. 

8. We are stronger than them. 

9. Him and me are of the same age. 

10. Whom did you think has arrived ? 

11. Them that seek wisdom shall find it. 

12. She and us divided the grapes between us. 

13. Him and her went together to the well. 

14. I am certain that it was neither him nor her. 

15. Art thou that traitor angel ? 

16. Art thou him? 

17. It is not me that he is angry with. 

18. I know not who has done this kindness, unless it be him 

who was so kind before. 



186 LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

19. If it had been her, she would have told us. 

20. Thou art him whom they described. 

21. It does not appear to be him. 

22. Motleys' History ; mens' clothing ; a boys' kite. 

23. Lady's maids. Childrens' playthings. Everybodies' busi- 

ness. 

24. Where is Smith's and Jone's store? 

25. Scott and Abbott's estimate of Napoleon differ greatly. 

26. Longfellow and Holmes's poems are widely read. 

27. Who can I trust? 

28. Miss Bell, who all admire, will be in the city next week. 

5. A verb agrees with its subject in number and 
person. 

A compound subject, consisting of two or more singu- 
lar nouns denoting different persons or things, and con- 
nected by and, is plural. Industry and perseverance win 
success. 

When singular subjects connected by and name the 
same person or thing, or when they are preceded by 
each, every, or no, the verb should be singular. My 
counsellor and friend has warned me. Every boy and 
girl is present. 

A compound subject, consisting of two or more singu- 
lar nouns connected by or or nor, is singular. Neither 
Nellie nor Alice is going. 

When subjects connected by or or nor differ in person 
or number, the verb agrees with the nearest. Neither 1 
nor my sisters were there. 

Note 1. — Do not use the plural form of the verb merely because 
the noun or pronoun next to the verb is plural; as, — 
One of the horses were sold. 
An appearance of religion and morals are useful. 

Note 2. — Another misleading case is that in which the subject 
is modified by two adjectives ; as, — 

His kind and even temper endear him to all. 



HOW TO USE THE PARTS OF SPEECH 187 

Correct the following : — 

1. Thou is very happy. 

2. You was there. 

3. Was you present ? 

4. Here comes the boys. 

5. Where is my books ? 

6. Has those books come ? 

7. Is your friends coming ? 

8. Was there many there ? 

9. Where was you when I called ? 

10. They was unwilling to go. 

11. Those is my sentiments. 

12. Was you there when the accident happened ? 

13. Neither Mary nor her sisters was at the party. 

14. " Well," says I, " what does thee think of him now ? ' 

15. The ship, with her crew, were lost at sea. 

16. No whisper, not a sound, were heard. 

17. Milton's poetry and his prose is vigorous. 

18. Such, Mr. President, is my sentiments. 

19. Every one have certain peculiar opinions. 

20. Cincinnatus is one of the noblest men that is mentioned in 

Roman history. 

21. Six months' service were enough to cure him. 

22. He, and he only, were right. 

23. Who does these remarks apply to ? 

24. Each branch and twig were covered with snow. 

25. How much shall I pay you ? I only ask a dollar. 

26. I do not like neither his appearance nor his conversation. 

27. We always should prefer our duty to our pleasure. 

28. A soldier was signing a petition with a wooden leg. 

29. My friend talks to me while walking continually. 

30. The derivation of some words are uncertain. 

31. A round of vain and foolish occupations please some people* 

32. A variety of pleasing objects charm the eye. 

33. Sixty pounds of wheat produces forty pounds of flour. 

34. The state of his affairs are very prosperous at present. 

35. Neither the lion nor the tiger are hard beasts to tame. 

36. Truth, and truth alone, are the object of my search. 

37. Silk, but not linen or muslin, are animal products. 



188 LANGUAGE AND GBAMMAB. 

38. Not a word, not a syllable, were uttered. 

39. The Yellowstone, as well as the Missouri, have been ex- 

plored. 

40. Each hour, each moment, have their duties. 

41. Every fruit, every flower, and every blade of grass, testify to 

the wisdom of the Creator. 

6. Pronouns must agree in person, number, and 
gender with the nouns they represent. 

Singular antecedents connected by and require a plu- 
ral pronoun when they denote different things. The 
man and the boy saved themselves. 

Singular antecedents connected by and require a sin- 
gular pronoun when they denote the same thing, The 
secretary and treasurer must sign his name; also when 
they are kept separated by the use of each, every, or 
no, Every sailor and marine took his place. 

Singular antecedents joined by or or nor require a 
singular pronoun. Wind or wave did its work. 

If the antecedents are of different persons or genders, 
the pronoun should agree with the first person rather than 
with the second or third, with the second person rather 
than with the third, and with the masculine rather than 
with the feminine. My brother and I hung our heads. 

Correct such of the following as are incorrect : — 

1. Let every boy answer for themselves. 

2. A man's success in life depends on their exertions. 

3. Every tree is known by their fruit. 

4. The crowd was so great that I could hardly get through 

them. 

5. Let any boy guess this riddle if they can. 

6. Every animal, however small, has some weapon with which 

they can defend themselves. 



HOW TO USE THE PARTS OF SPEECH 189 

7. Both Webster and Clay loved his country. 

8. Either Webster or Clay loved their country. 

9. Both cold and heat have its extremes. 

10. John or James will favor us with their company. 

11. Some boy or man has lost his hat. 

12. Coffee and sugar are brought from the West Indies, and 

large quantities of it are consumed annually. 

13. Neither the captain nor the soldiers showed himself during 

the attack. 

14. If the boys or their father come, we shall be glad to see 

him. 

15. Every person should love their friends, and do good to 

them. 

16. No person should boast of themselves. 

17. Let every pupil obey their teacher. 

18. The Christian who knows their duty loves their God. 

19. Every one must judge of their own feelings. 

20. The jury was unanimous in their decision. 

21. If an Aristotle, a Pythagoras, or a Galileo suffer for their 

opinion, they are martyrs. 

22. Poverty or wealth have their own temptations. 

23. No son or daughter lives who does not love their parents. 

24. If thy hand or thy foot offend thee, cut them off and cast 

them from thee. 

7. Adjectives implying* unity or plurality must 
agree in number with their nouns. 

An adjective of the comparative degree should be 
used when only two objects are compared. 

An adjective, not an adverb, should be used as predi- 
cate-complement to express the condition of the subject. 

Be careful not to use an adjective for an adverb to 
tell how or to modify another adjective. 

Remember that two negatives are equal to an affirma- 
tive. 

Never use them adjectively for those. 

Use each other, either, and neither in speaking of two 



190 LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

persons or things. Use one another, any, and none in 
speaking of more than two persons or things. 

Note. — Two or more adjectives used after the noun or pronoun 
modified should be separated from the rest of the sentence by 
commas. 

Correct the errors in the following : — 

1. Will you please hand me them books? 

2. The water in the river is only six foot deep. 

3. The walk in front of the house is ten foot wide. 

4. I am very fond of those kind of grapes. 

5. Mr. Clevenger has some of them kind of apples. 

6. I never liked those sort of pictures. 

7. This young lady dances elegant. 

8. She is thinly clad, and looks coldly. 

9. I feel badly. 

10. Marble feels coldly. 

11. She looks charmingly. 

12. It was sold cheaply. 

13. It appears still more plainly. 

14. That sounds harshly. 

15. I can do that very easy. 

16. His hand' was bruised very bad. 

17. That train moves rapid. 

18. The children sang excellent. 

19. This is extreme cold weather. 

20. Who did you call? 

21. Them are the ones. 

22. Harry and me have been busy. 

23. George and Walter destroyed that beautiful tree, but they 

did it unintentional. 

24. That elephant is enormous large. 

25. The waves rose dreadful high. 

26. The steamer rocked terrible. 

27. The boys conducted themselves quieter than the girls. 

28. The servant looks carefully, and I will employ him, for I 

think he will look careful to our interests. 

29. The skaters glide smooth over the ice. 



HOW TO USE THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 191 

30. Her hat looks newly, because it has been new trimmed. 

31. She dresses suitable to her station. 

32. Mary always dresses neat, and she looks neatly in any dress. 

33. She wore a dress suitable to her station. 

34. I chiefly wanted the money, not the papers. 

35. He rode to the pasture, driving his cow before him on horse- 

back. 

36. Next came a Dutchman riding a small donkey with a big 

pipe in his mouth. 

37. This poem was written by a young lady who was born in 

Virginia at the age of fourteen years. 

38. The agent was only instructed to buy the house, not the lot. 

EKRORS TO BE AVOIDED. 

Correct the following, being careful in the use of 
nay, can, shall, ivill, etc. 

1. I will drown, nobody shall help me. 

2. I will be obliged to you if you shall attend to it. 

3. We will have gone by to-morrow morning. 

4. I do not think I will like the change. 

5. You shall be late if you do not hurry. 

6. " You can go," said the teacher. 

7. They would not come unto me, that they may receive my 

blessing. 

8. I thought it likely I would see you. 

9. I heard that you should leave on Monday. 

10. I will freeze if I do not move about. 

11. She shall be fifteen years old to-morrow. 

12. You will have it if I can get it for you. 

13. He will have it if he shall take the trouble to ask for it. 

14. Take up the ashes and put it in the barrel. 

15. No one of the boys came without their books. 

16. The Government will have to change their orders. 

17. Neither the boy nor the girl can take care of themselves. 

18. The best horse which we saw was the same one which your 

father bought. 

19. Pupils should always be kind to each other. 

20. Husband and wife should respect one another's feelings. 



192 LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAB. 

21. Every boy and every girl had their lesson. 

22. The soldiers, and not the captain, did his duty. 

23. Where is the horse whom you lately bought ? 

24. There was a flock of sheep watched by a dog which had 

lately been sheared. 

Do not use the past participle instead of the past 
tense of a verb ; as, — 

He done it. 
I seen him. 

Do not use the past tense after an auxiliary verb; 

as, — 

He has did [done] it. 

I have saw [seen] that before. 

Do not confound lie with lay. The first is intransi- 
tive, and its principal parts are lie, lay, lain. The 
second is transitive, and its principal parts are lay, laid, 
laid. Thus : — 

1. The book lies on the floor. 

It lay on the floor this morning. 
It has lain there all day. 

2. I lay my book on the table thus. 
I laid it there yesterday. 

I have often laid it there. 

Do not confound sit with set. The first is intransi- 
tive, the second is generally transitive : — 

1. The wild duck sits on her nest. 
He sat on the fence. 

I have sat here since morning. 

2. Set the chairs in order. 

I set them in order last evening. 
He had set the pitcher on the table. 

Do not confound raise with rise. The first is transi- 



HOW TO USE THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 193 

tive and regular, the second is intransitive and irreg- 
ular : — 

1. They raise corn. 

They raised a crop of wheat last year. 
They have raised good crops this year. 

2. Rise up. 

I rose early this morning. 
I have risen earlier. 

Correct the following : — 

1. I should have went if you had asked me. 

2. I wish I had chose a different seat. 

3. A certain man become rich, and soon begun to be weary of 

having nothing to do. 

4. The French language is spoke in every part of Europe. 

5. The river has raised a great deal. 

6. I saw six ships laying at anchor. 

7. Why do you lay there ? 

8. How can you set in that chair ? 

9. I have wrote for the books, but they have not came. 

10. The bird has flew out of its cage, and it will be eat by the 

cat. 

11. I seen him when he come home yesterday. 

12. Has any one saw the book my father has gave me ? 

13. They must have ran the race before we arrived. 

14. I have saw such things many a time. 

15. The houses were shook by the storm. 

16. The apartments should have been showed to us. 

17. Those words were spoke by somebody who was present at 

the time. 

18. The fox had sprang the trap. 

19. She has strove hard to win the victory. 

20. The boys have swam across the pond. 

21. He sat the chair in the corner. 

22. Sit that plate on the table and let it set. 

23. I have set in this position a long time. 

24. That child will not lay still or set still a minute. 

25. I laid down under the tree and enjoyed the scenery. 

26. Lie that stick on the table and let it lay. 



194 LANGUAGE AND GBAMMAB. 

27. Which of the twins is the fattest ? 

28. Which is the longer, the Amazon, the Mississippi, or the 

Nile? 

29. The Volga is the longest of any river in Europe. 

30. The rose is the most fragrant of any other flower. 

31. Though my barn is larger than yours, your's is the prettiest. 

32. The French are more polite than any nation. 

33. She done her task very well. 

34. I seen the man yesterday. 

35. He is accused of having stole a watch. 

36. His friends have all forsook him. 

37. This man has visited Europe last summer. 

38. It will grieve your parents to have heard of your conduct. 

39. Every man, woman, and child were lost. 

40. Not one of the prisoners have escaped. 

41. Neither of the boats were injured. 

42. This rose smells sweetly. 

43. That young lady dances very graceful. 

44. I can never think so mean of him. 

45. W^e traveled as safe in the cars as in our own carriage. 

46. That tree is fifty foot high. 

47. Those sort of people are never happy. 

48. Look sharp, if you wish to see good. 

49. He came agreeable to his promise. 

50. The elephant has more sagacity than any animal. 

51. The army numbers one thousand horses and ten thousand 

feet. 

52. Iron is the most useful of all other metals. 

53. Venus is brighter than any star in the firmament. 

54. Do not touch them books lying on that 'ere table. 

55. Each of you must attend to their own affairs. 

56. Husband and wife should love one another. 

57. Pupils must not talk to each other in school. 

58. She was dressed very rich, and appeared very proudly. 

59. None of my feet are lame, and all my eyes are sound. 



CAPITAL LETTERS AND PUNCTUATION. 195 



CHAPTER XX. 
Capital Letters and Punctuation. 

Capital letters and punctuation marks help to make 
the meaning of written or printed language clear. So 
far a few rules only have been given, and these relate 
to the plainest cases. The following are intended as 
references to guide the pupil when in doubt, just as the 
dictionary is used by him to ascertain the exact pro- 
nunciation of a word. The teacher will frequently ask 
the pupils to justify the use of capital letters or the 
punctuation of sentences in the text-books used in 
the schools, or in the compositions that the pupils write. 

CAPITALIZATION. 

The general practice is to begin with capitals — 

1. Every sentence. 

2. Every line of poetry. 

3. Every direct quotation — one expressing a thought, 
and not introduced by a conjunction : — 

(Direct.) The poet says, " Learn to labor and to wait." 
(Indirect.) The poet says that we must learn to labor and to 
wait. 

4. Statements enumerated in a formal manner : — 

There are three joint committees : — 

1. On public printing. 

2. Enrolled bills. 

3. On library. 



196 LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

5. Illustrative examples (quotations, or assumed to be 
such), if sentences : — 

An adjective used in the predicate is called a predicate adjective ; 
as, " They were late." 

6. Proper names, hence also names of months and 
days, leading words in titles of books and essays, and 
all appellations of the Deity. 

7. Proper adjectives, — adjectives derived from proper 
nouns. Not infrequently words so derived have lost 
their primary reference, like worn and faded coins. 
Such are usually written with small initials ; as, dam- 
ask, from Damascus, and stentorian, meaning loud, from 
Stentor, a fabulous person noted for the strength of his 
lungs. 

8. Names of things vividly personified, when indi- 
vidual : — 

"O Tiber! father Tiber ! " 

" And Honor with his spotless shield.' , 

9. Titles of office, honor, or respect, when used in 
connection with the proper name or (as a rule) in direct 
address. 

10. Names of the cardinal points (iiorth, south, etc.), 
when these denote a district or a people, but not when 
expressing mere direction. 

11. Finally, the pronoun I and the interjection 
should be capitals. 

EXERCISES. 

Correct, with reasons : — 

1. The general assembly meets the first monday in January. 

2. The bible says, " children, obey your parents." 

3. Many pictures by italian artists hang on the walls of english 

homes. 



CAPITAL LETTERS AND PUNCTUATION. 197 

4. " Come, spring, gentle spring." 

5. In the late fall or early Winter the apples ripen. 

6. Many birds go Sonth in Winter, and return in Spring and 

Summer. 

7. Hawthorne's " house of seven gables is situated in Concord, 

Mass. 

8. Thank heaven, i'm here safe at last ! 

9. Is this a christian nation ? 

10. The Journey from boston to New york takes but a few 

hours. 

11. He wrote a Book on the american revolution. 

12. o thou that nearest prayer ! 

13. In saxon strength the abbey frowned. 

14. Like the clouds of an april morning that pass in shadows 

o'er the grass, so runs the Tale. 

15. Many important Cities of europe are situated in the Eastern 

part. 

16. Can you speak fluently french or german? 

17. Thus through the Scottish camp they passed, and reached 

the City gates at last. 

18. The norman conquest was the means of introducing the 

feudal system into england. 

19. He called to the fleeing scout in Stentorian tones. 

20. " oh ! what is so rare as a day in June? 

then, if ever, come perfect days ; 
then heaven tries the earth if it be in tune, 
and over it softly her warm ear lays." 



PUNCTUATION. 

Punctuation is a mechanical means of indicating to 
the eye the construction of the sentence. Writers vary 
in the use of punctuation marks, and some latitude 
must be left for individual taste ; but there are some 
rules accepted by the best authors, which are given 
below. 



198 LANGUAGE AND GBAMMAR. 

Period. 
Place a period after — 

1. A declarative or imperative sentence. 

2. An abbreviation. 

3. Letters and sub-headings significant alone. 

4. Roman letters used as numerals. 

Interrogation Point. 

An interrogation point is used — 

1. After complete questions, whether asked by the 
writer or quoted directly ; as, — 

What time is it ? 

He asked, " What time is it?" 

2. Within curves, to express doubt without formal 
denial; as,— 

This mountain is said to be the highest (?) in the State. 

3. After elliptical questions having a common depen- 
dence; as, — ■ 

Where is cotton produced ? Corn ? Wheat ? 

Exclamation Point. 

An exclamation point is used — 

1. After sentences and parts of sentences that are 
sufficiently emotional ; as, — 

Gentlemen may cry " Peace ! peace ! " but there is no peace. 

2. After interjections ; as, — 

Hark ! what was that sound? 
Indeed ! you surprise me. 

3. Sometimes to attract attention ; as, — - 

Selling out below cost ! ! ! 



CAPITAL LETTERS AND PUNCTUATION. 199 

4. Within curves, to denote irony or contempt ; as, — 
This disinterested (!) patriot asks for your votes. 

Colon. 
A colon is used — 

1. Between the great divisions of a compound sen- 
tence, when the minor divisions are marked by a semi- 
colon ; as, — 

And so she dwelt : the valley 

More peaceful year by year ; 
When suddenly strange portents 

Of some great deed seemed near. 

2. Before an enumeration of particulars, when the 
particulars themselves are separated by semicolons; 
as, — 

Congress has the power to levy taxes for three purposes : to pay 
the public debt ; to provide for the common defense ; to pro- 
vide for the general welfare. 

8. Before a direct quotation formally introduced ; 
as, — 

These were the words of the dying Lawrence : " Don't give up 
the ship." 

Remark. — When a quotation is not formally introduced, use 
commas ; as, — 

These words, " Don't give up the ship," were spoken by the 
dying Lawrence. 

Semi-colon. 

A semi-colon is used — 

1. Between the great divisions of a sentence, if the 
minor divisions are marked by commas ; as, — 

For my part, whatever anguish of spirit it may cost, I am will- 
ing to know the whole truth ; I am willing to know the worst, 
and to provide for it. 



200 LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

2. Between co-ordinate members, when a comma 
would not seem to give due weight to the thought ; 
as, — 

The water attains very little circulation while in the reservoir ; 
and in the hot weather it gradually becomes stagnant. 

3. Between serial clauses or phrases having a com- 
mon dependence ; as, — 

He had left no duty unperformed; no wish unsatisfied; no 
ambition unattained. 

4. Often before as, preceding an illustrative ex- 
ample ; as, — 

Which is frequently used as an adjective; as, "Which things are 
an allegory." 

5. Before an informal enumeration of particulars, if 
the particulars themselves are separated by commas 
only; as, — 

There are three cases ; the nominative, the possessive, and the 
objective. 

Comma. 
The comma is used to mark — 

1. Independent elements ; as, — 

Let us not, I beseech you, sir, deceive ourselves longer. 

2. Inverted elements ; as, — 

By comparing my work with the original, I discovered many 
errors. 

3. Appositional elements ; as, — 

I came suddenly upon a young sandpiper, a most beautiful 
creature, covered with a soft, gray down. 

4. Elliptical elements ; as, — 

They stood up carefully, stepped silently over the floor, opened 
the door, and passed out into the night. 



CAPITAL LETTERS AND PUNCTUATION. 201 

5. Contrasted elements ; as, — 

It is not James, but Fred. 

6. Direct quotations, if short and informal, or if inter- 
mediate ; as, — 

Every day we said, " This will be the last." 
To say, " I am wrong," requires courage. 

7. The logical subject if very long, if ending in a 
verb, or if composed of a series of unconnected terms ; 
as, — 

To tell what is right at such a time, is hard. 
Whatever she did, was well done. 

The legislative, the executive, the judicial, are the three divis- 
ions of our government. 

8. Short members of a compound sentence ; as, — 
The wind was strong, and both crafts carried a press of sail. 

9. Parenthetical and intermediate elements > as, — 
But, like most great and good men, he had an excellent mother. 

Remarks. — No comma, as a rule, is put between restrictive 
elements and that which they restrict ; as, — 

This is the way in which they went. 
He promised that he would do it. 

Restrictive elements sometimes need the comma to assist the 
eye, or to show the reference of a relative clause to more than one 
antecedent ; as, — 

Keats says, that truth is beauty and beauty truth. 
I brought on shore all the tools, ropes, and sails, which I could 
carry on the raft. 

When the inverted element is very closely connected, the comma 
is often omitted ; as, — 

In the water were two broken oars. 
In general, use a comma whenever it serves to prevent obscurity. 



202 language and grammar. 

Dash. 

The dash is used to mark — 

1. An unfinished construction ; as, — 

But if we fail — 

2. A witty transition ; as, — 

Give grasping pomp its double share, — 
I ask but one recumbent chair. 

3. Hesitation; as, — 

Yes, there are three — no — four of them. 

4. An abrupt change of style ; as, — 

Such protection as vultures give to lambs, — covering and 
devouring them. 

5. An abrupt change of thought ; as, — 

Halt ! — the dust-brown ranks stood fast. 

6. A repetition for effect ; as, — 

Out — out into the darkness. 

7. A parenthetical element ; as, — 

They caught sight — just for a moment — of some object behind 
them. 

8. The omission of letters or figures ; as, — 

In the city of A lived a man. 

During the winter of 1888-9 there was much suffering. 

Curves. 

The curves are used to enclose — 
1. Independent elements that violently break the 
unity of the context ; as, — 

Little I ask ; my wants are few ; 

I only wish a hut of stone, 
(A very plain brown stone will do,) 

That I may call my own. 



CAPITAL LETTERS AND PUNCTUATION. 203 

2. Dependent elements, if desired to be read in a per- 
ceptible undertone ; as, — 

Old age (which few of us shall know) 
Now puts a period to my woe. 

Remark. — Matter within the curves is punctuated as in any 
other position. Whatever point would be needed if the parenthe- 
sis were left out, must be retained and inserted after the second 
curve. 

Brackets. 
The brackets are used to enclose — 

1. What one person puts into the writing of another ; 
as, — 

The settlement took place on October 7 [1642] . 

2. References, derivations, pronunciations in diction- 
aries; as, — 

Trivial [Latin, tres and via]* Commonplace. 

Remarks. — Formerly they were used in dramatic compositions 
to enclose directions or observations not considered a part of the 
text. In this use, however, they have been almost superseded by 
the curves. 

Quotation Marks. 

Double quotation marks are used to enclose the iden- 
tical language of another ; as, — 

A lady once said to a great painter, " Pray, Mr. Opie, with what 

do you mix your colors ? " 
" With brains, Madam, with brains," growled the painter. 

A quotation included within another is distinguished 
by single points ; as, — 

"Well but, Tom," said Arthur, "hear what Elisha says to him : 
* Go in peace/ He would not have said that if Naaman had 
been in the wrong." 



204 LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAB. 

Remark. — The quotation retains its own punctuation ; as, — 

He asked me, " Why do you weep ? " 

Why did you not say at once, " I cannot go " ? 

The interrogation point belongs, in the latter, to the entire sen- 
tence ; in the former, only to the objective clause. 

UnDEB SCORE. 

The underscore is used to distinguish foreign words ; 
usually names of newspapers, of magazines, and (less 
frequently) of books ; often for emphasis, — one under- 
score denoting what is emphatic, italics; two, what is 
more emphatic, small capitals ; three, what is very 
emphatic, CAPITALS. 

Apostrophe. 

The apostrophe is used — 

1. To denote the omission of a letter or letters ; as, — 

WV11 choose among them. 
It's five o'clock. 

2. To denote the omission of a figure or figures ; as, — 

The Boys of '61. 

3. To distinguish the possessive case ; as, — 

King's (cyning-es). 

4. To form certain plurals ; as, — 

Cross your fs and dot your i's. 

Hyphen. 

The hyphen is used to divide words into their con- 
stituent parts, either when it is desired to exhibit the 
parts, as re-ject-ed, or when it is necessary to write a 
portion on the next line. 



CAPITAL LETTEES AND PUNCTUATION. 205 

The following rules, which cover most cases of such 
division, may be of service : — 

1. Join consonants to the vowels whose sounds they 
modify; as, epi-dem-ic, an-i-mos-i-ty. 

2. Prefixes and suffixes form distinct syllables, when 
possible without misrepresenting the pronunciation ; 
as, farm-er, re-print, dis-grace-ful. 

3. In the case of compounds, the divisions fall be- 
tween the constituents ; as, horse-man, more-over. 

EXERCISES. 

Let the pupil correct the following in capitals and 
punctuation, and give the reason in each instance : — 

1. If i were a boy again I Would practice perseverance oftener 
and never give a thing up because it was hard or inconvenient to 
do it if We want light We must conquer darkness there is no 
trait more valuable than a determination to persevere When the 
Right is to Be accomplished 

2. if i were a Boy Again I would School Myself into A habit of 
Attention Oftener i would let nothing come between me and the 
subject In Hand i would Remember That an expert on Ice never 
tries to skate in two Directions At Once 

3. one of our great mistakes while young is that we do not attend 
strictly to what we are About Just then we do not bend Our 
energies close enough to what we are doing or Learning we 
wander into a half-interest only and so never acquire fully what is 
needful for us to become master of. 

4. If I were to live my life Again i would pay more Attention to 
the cultivation of memory i would strengthen that faculty by 
every possible means And on every possible occasion It takes a 
Little hard work at first to remember things Accurately But 
memory soon helps Itself and gives very little trouble it only needs 
early cultivation to become a power everybody can acquire it 



206 LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 



CHAPTER XXL 
Letter Writing. 

Letters vary somewhat from time to time at the dic- 
tates of fashion, but there are conventional models 
which are always in good taste, and certain instruc- 
tions which apply equally to all kinds of correspond- 
ence. 

The ink should be black. The paper should be of 
good quality and white or cream-colored. Brilliant 
decorations and highly colored paper are invariable 
marks of ignorance or bad taste. 

Legible writing, careful punctuation, and correct 
spelling are absolutely essential. 

Letters which ask for information should be answered 
immediately. 

Every letter should be critically reviewed before it 
receives the writer's signature. The signing of a letter 
is an official act which makes the signer morally and 
legally responsible for the contents. No one can afford 
to send out a slovenly or discourteous note. If the let- 
ter is written under the pressure of excitement or strong 
feeling, it is well to lay it aside until the next day, in 
order that it may be considered dispassionately. 

The full name and address of the writer should be 
given in every letter. 

The conventional divisions of a letter are as fol- 
lows : — 



LETTER WRITING. 207 

1. Heading. — The address of the writer and the 
date. 

2. Introduction. — The name, title, and address of 
the person written to, and the salutation. 

3. Message. — The body of the letter. 

4. Conclusion. — The subscription and the signa- 
ture. 

For the sake of convenience letters can be classified 
under three heads, according to the purpose for which 
they are written : — 

1. Business Correspondence. 

2. Friendly Correspondence. 

3. Social Correspondence. 

BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE. 

Under this division fall letters in regard to mercantile 
transactions and communications to persons in official 
positions. Such letters should be as brief as the nature 
of the business will permit, exact in phraseology, and 
dignified in style. Well-expressed sentences are of 
the greatest value in business correspondence, as they 
show that the writer is clear-headed and keenly intel- 
ligent. There should not be any traces of abruptness 
or haste, but promptness in answering will always be 
appreciated. 

A stamp should be enclosed when the writer desires 
an answer for his own convenience. A copy should be 
made and filed. 

Letters sent by business men or officials should be 
written on paper bearing an official letter head, showing 
with what business or office the writer is connected, and 
where he may be addressed. 



208 language and gbammab. 

Forms for Business Letters. 

(With printed business head.) 

PEAKE, YEAGEE & BALL, 
708 North Broadway. 

(Heading.) St. Louis, Mo., j/un<& 3, 1892. 

?Tl&QyQA^y. of-LlveA;, ISwbcLeXZ If 1 (Ho-., (Introduction.) 

taw 



7 

&&yiXZ&wu&yo : — lAcniAy kAjyici LeXZ&v oj^ tk& !7tA vmZ. 
iv~a& v&&&iAy&d / asncl vC aiv-e& uo, fol&(M/ii / i& to qama, &L&. 

(Message.) 

<5Wfl^M tAat tk&Qs& v&fetb&Q/ to ucyivv iyyimUAsV&Qs waJZ 

y^mi^s V-ZAAf tA/ittu, 

(Conclusion.) S ) &aJc& / y&cocf&v V* Bail. 

3w 18, 



( With printed official head.) 

SCHOOL DEPAETMENT, 

Worcester, Mass. 

fwn& 3, f8<}2. 

Tttv. jaAyvm, &. TVIoaXam,, 

(Message.) 

of&eAs&tasVij" 



LETTER WRITING. 209 

(Without printed letter head.) 

28 cPL&a&asvit oft., &ivi&\j)vviaLl, €,kio / 
fion& 3, /£<?£. 
TT(v. foLWv&Qs R. ofciLwvori, 

fCaMfaOMs @AXAf, ?Vlo. 

£&av vfOb : — /i-civ-uyicf Qs&&vi yoiiv aclueAZt^eA^&nt tov 
a, kou to ldyd / un Uv& w-kot&QsCil& v-oot ayyico Q/ko& (yiiQA/yv&QA^ > 
c/ w~U)/k to a/jo/Jbiu tov tk& JQLa&&. c/ ci'yyu Qy&'oemZ&eAV 
u&oajQs otcL ; oaicI kaA>-& juoX; avcicLa^aZ&ci yuynv tk& ktak 
Os&kool ot tkCo, &itu. &n>&loQs&c£ uoio wiLL ii/yici t&oZt- 
ynxyyiuzLd/ yuyiru wvu tovryvms t&a.&k&iQs ; owid, o,kowicL itou 
cl&QsW& tL, <J oJtatt 6~& aloiot to &alt wjfrovi now at awu 
tOm& uow wisOsU ayja/Jbovyit. 

iov a iduova6-l& &on&C<^£Asatuyvi, <J oak, 
V&vu v&&j&&&t/L / wllu uow%&, 

In formal official communications the office, rather 
than the individual occupying it, is addressed. 



tyru&nt of oftat& / 
lA^aoshLyiatori, §wyi& */-, / 8^2. 
£To tk& ^ze&vcL&nt : 

c? v&o^&etf^lCu 6~&y> l&av~& to o^UymiZ iny v&OslanaZLori 
of tk& offi&& o^-of&&v&taAAf of oftat& of tk& lAsnit&d> 
^tat&&, to wkt&k c/ w-ciq, d / p/^ovyvt&cl (yu uow on tk& 
5tk of Tflouwh, /88<f. 

<$k& ^onciiZLon ot jbukLi€> 6~u&i'n&QsQ/ i/vo tk& J&e/fiiaAZ- 
nv&'vit ot $ftat& J'WQ/tvtv&Q/ ^ / yi& tru v&mv&&LL / via tkat wisu 
i&QsicfnaLLo / yi k& a&&&fet&cC iArLWv&oticit&lu. 
<J kav-& tk& konov to k&, 

V'dAsU v&o/^&&tYiMu ; 

1/lonv olytdi&nt Qs&vv-ant, 

jla / nv&a> &. f8ta,VYi&. 



210 LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

<$o tk& of&eAs&taAyu ot oftat& : 

'^o^lA; l&CC&v ot thuis cLat&, teA^cL&vvyia uouv ve^vanci- 
tton ot tk& 0VIL&& ot £f&&v&tcvbu ot cftat& ot tk& ViniZ&cL 
&tat&Qs, /vcms h~&ems i&&eA<v~&oL. &k& t&iwiQs wi w~kL&k ucyw 
$ZaZ& ucyiov cC&qA;V&Qs a,v& qa^@A aa> to l&a-v~& WL& no &kot&& 
(yuZ to a&&&cC& to uoiov w^uJv&Qs oCt OW&&. llowv l&QAsQ- 
<yiatvon V& tk&v&tov& a&&& / fot&cl. 

But the governor of a State is addressed by name as 
well as by title. 

OFFICE OF 

SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION. 



Concord, N. H., (udsokzv, 189/- 

<So /lfi& Svc&Mems&u /ifuvoAn. CL. &%vttl&, 

Sou&vnov ot cfi&w~ /fa/m^mAAA,& : 

o!iJb ; cf kaAS-& tA& konov to tvayyio/wviZ tkuywak uou, 

to tk& e/&rueAx?jL (^o^ovt tk& tovtu-tUltk omawuoL 'L&jboiL ot 
tk& &&kool& ot tk& oftat& / tk& Qya / 'yyv& k&twia tk& tsu^&'yiOu- 
towvtk v&faovt Qstri&& tk& &oZci6ZCQAwb&n<t ot tkvo/ oyu^&. 



^u/J&& , iV) / iL&rvcL&rit ot 3 > w / oZt& ofnoXyVw^tvon. 



LETTER WRITING. 211 

In addressing a clergyman, a civil official, or a mili- 
tary officer, care must be taken to include in the intro- 
duction the proper title. 

A bishop is to be addressed as, Reverend Sir or Rever- 
end and Dear Sir. 

Members of legislative bodies are addressed as, Ron. 

Lawyers are entitled to Esq., but this term is so often 
used wrongly that it has almost lost its meaning. A 
strong effort should be made to correct this abuse. 

A married lady can be addressed thus, — 

Tflvos. &. c/. €atcyyi, 

<&&av THcuiamv : — 

In the case of a single lady, a good form is, — 

jCe^ouyicjtcyyi, THa&Qs. 

The subscription most commonly found at the close 
of business letters is, Yours truly or Very truly yours. 

In official communications, other more formal terms 
are common; as, Yours respectfully, Very respectfully 
yours, Your most obedient servant, Respectfully sub- 
mitted, etc. 

FRIENDLY CORRESPONDENCE. 

Under this head can be classed those letters between 
acquaintances which take the place of casual conver- 
sation. 

Letters of friendship are less formal in character than 
those of business, and give a greater range to individual 
taste. Very few rules can be laid down to govern this 
class of correspondence. Letters to mere acquaintances 



212 LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR . 

may be somewhat formal in character, while those to 
relatives and intimate friends may be quite informal and 
familiar. Even in friendly letters, however, the writer 
should bear in mind the essential rules in regard to cor- 
respondence, and never let familiarity degenerate into 
carelessness or discourtesy. Select such topics as will 
be of interest to the receiver of the note, and endeavor 
to treat them in as original a way as possible. 

If persons desire to have their letters received with 
pleasure, let them observe the following cautions : — 

Don't make too frequent use of the pronoun " I." 

Don't begin a letter with, " As I have nothing else to 
do, etc." 

Don't end a letter with, " As I have nothing else to 
say, etc." 

Don't write across a page previously filled. 

Don't use ruled paper. 

Don't abbreviate words. 

The introduction and conclusion admit of great vari- 
ety, and the tact of the writer will be shown in the care 
with which different degrees of friendship are thereby 
recognized. 

Some of the most common introductions among friends 
are : My dear Miss Wentworth, My dear Nellie, Dear 
Mr. Jones, Dear Tom. 

Among relatives the proper introduction is too obvi- 
ous to need comment. 

The range is still greater in the matter of conclu- 
sions, and here again care must be taken to use them 
judiciously. Among those which can be recommended 
are : Sincerely yours, Yours truly, Very sincerely (truly) 
yours, Your (sincere) friend, Yours affectionately, Ever 
yours, Cordially yours, etc. 



LETTER WRITING. 213 

No other class of correspondence presents so many 
difficulties as letters of friendship. There can be no 
models given which will cover the exceedingly complex 
conditions of the subject, and the success or failure of 
the writer will depend largely upon his own originality 
and good taste. The very informality which lends such 
a charm to the best of this class of letters is a distinct 
source of danger, since there is a temptation to give 
expression to opinions and criticisms without due con- 
sideration ; and these, having been put into permanent 
form and sent out from the writer's possession, may 
return to mortify him when he will least expect them. 

It is an old saying : " A word once spoken can never 
be recalled." With how much greater force may this 
be said of a word once written. Write easily and freely 
of matters which will be of interest to the person ad- 
dressed, using with care language that can give pain 
to none. 

Forms for Friendly Letters. 

cA&w-tcyyi, TWa&Qs. 
7yiu cL&oA, €cUXh, : — 

&A&V& CL1& QsO 'vruaswu thA,ricj& to t&lt uow akout that 
<J Aavdly know tvA&v& to k&cfWi, eZ&. 
(Message.) 
R&wi&wikeAs / yru& k^vicLty to a,lt o^ owv Qs&t. 
(OV-&V <ucyuAAs, 



214 LANGUAGE AND GBAMMAR. 

(With printed head.) 

40 Chestnut St., 
Trenton. 

TViif kvotAeAs ha& waaXjL&w wu& tkaZ uo-w av& qoAyyuf to- 
iyu&tt hA/wv 0-71 uowv wciu vfcywth, &X&. 

(Message.) 

c/ /iofa& tkaZ uow w-iZL 'UjyicL tk& tit/fa cv fol&a&asyit 
on& ; ayioL tAat ucyw waXI i&qa/Vyi uowv h&odXA asyict 
oZds&vbatA ivyideA/ tk& OsfruXAeAyyi qa^^v. 



/if&t&n &. (XZw-ood. 
j/wn& XAwcL, 



W'indAcirn,; jiwu& 8, fStfU. 

J^&oaj jcueJo : — 

"UcyiAA/ jottu l&CteAs akout tA& ttoAuna tvvfo &awv& u&bt&v- 

cLaAf, awicL att tk& kau& &a/yyu& ixyu/vicL loooZ &v-&fivyiq to- 

h&OAs tt l&OLci, &t&. 

(Message.) 

Zi^& aAcoU &9c4k&<2Z to- k&civ cdwbCt t/iaZ &aAn//a> nerik 
t0wv&. 



LETTER WRITING. 215 

SOCIAL CORRESPONDENCE. 

Under this head come notes of invitation, acceptance, 
and regret, and letters of introduction. 

Invitations and their answers may be either formal or 
informal. 

Informal notes of this character are simply friendly 
letters, confined to a special subject. The form is very 
elastic and may be varied to suit the occasion. There 
are a few points, however, which the writer will do well 
to keep in mind. 

They must be written in the first person. 

They should be cordial. 

They should be brief. 

They should be limited to the subject of the invita- 
tion, and should not introduce outside matter. 

Examples of Informal Notes. 

7711&& jlcyyi&Q/, oi cA&w /i~av-e^v ; v& o-wv aw&ot thv& w-&eJc> / 
asyioL w~& wLqsJv k&v to wu&et a t&w- o-t owv liv&ncUs. 
1/thsll <uovs not QW-& too, tJv& / p>t&OQAW& (yL ucyiuv &ovAA)sas}vu 
at d'Lyi'vi&'b <yvi yi&xt Sw&aeCa/u w-zriiyyia, at &t>x> &' &lo@Jo ? 



(QALCLovi /'f&Lcfhtos, 



ucyuAA/, 



An informal note should always be answered in- 
formally; as, — 



216 LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAU. 



%<• d&cvb TWito. 



■aw 



eft w~t<lL qvv-e rn^e qveat / j&L&umL / be to ctijyi& w-vtJv Ui 
an S^hwubcLosU we^dt, and <J &hall al&a 6*& v-evu qlad ta 
wv&&t THxaas jtane&, at wAawu uavu hav-e &a t/ueawenttu 



iu uo 

?ViaA,u Bennett offoen&eAs. 



&emtve, 
fwne #-, f8<?2. 



Letters of introduction should be brief, cordial, and 
neatly expressed. The name of the bearer, and the 
name and address of the person written to, should 
always be included. No one has the right to give such 
a note unless willing to vouch personally for the char- 
acter of the one thus introduced. 

Example of a Letter of Introduction. 

OLlkaAvu; jlwn& 3, / 8^2. 
?Vlu deav jtahyi&an : — 

Let wu& l / yit\sacUi&& wl>u t^iend, Tflv. &&o-uf& vfawyev, 
at JbetvaiZ, and e/x/JosVeQ^ the hajbe that yaw wttt 
&9ct&ncL ta htwu the, &a / nv& &avdtal qveettnq that yau 
hav~& always quo-en ta 



IfeyuA, 



<3h,&deA,v& &. ^ahm^an, 

/25 SveeZeA, (Zwewioe,, 

BaoZan, 7flaQs& 



€oUv-aA,d &. Jbwn&an. 



LETTEB WHITING. 217 

The envelope should be left unsealed, and, in addition 
to the regular address, the words " Introducing Mr. 
George Sawyer " should appear in the lower left-hand 
corner. 

Formal notes of invitation are usually printed from 
engraved plates. They vary somewhat in phraseology, 
but the following specimens will convey a clear idea of 
the common forms. Such notes must always be ex- 
pressed in the third person. 

Examples of Formal Notes. 
To a reception : — 

TTlv. a/yud TTlvb. @J / b& r ul&& (Sofi&'bfroyb 

v&aw&oZ tk& / J&L&aMAiv& at uavuv ^awu^oywu 

(yyv Sth^uA^cicuu &v~£MsiAvq ; t h&&& / m,6-&v &&v~&nth,, 

Yuo-yiis &iaht wvitvt &leAy&yv a' ' &La&k/. 

//2 &kavlottz ^tvzet. 

If there is to be dancing, the word "Dancing" should 
be added at the lower left corner. 

The answer, which must be promptly sent, should 
follow the phraseology of the invitation as closely as 
possible. 

If it is accepted : — 

71%. L. (ddm-cuucL /ifo-td&w 
TTlv. a/yici 7?lub. (^fvouvt^^ €m&ui(yn/^ 

vwv-itaZLcyyv lav SthiuvoscLaAf &v-&nvyia f 



218 LANGUAGE AND GBAMMAE. 

If it is declined : — 

77lt>. L. ScUoauL IiolcL& / yo 

i&av&tos that a, / j&v&v-isO- / iu& &yiqa,ae/wbEmt 



fav&v&ntos hv& a,&&a/Jota, / vi&& at 

Tftis. a/nsd Tftvfr. @shs6L f bL&& & / yvbui&o / nJ& 

isyiwXatLarb lav &kwio,cLasu &v-&nisyiq, 

An invitation to dinner should include the name of 
the guest. 

■THis. cbTicL TTiisQs. &A>a / bL&& W-. ftwwru 

v&cvwe&t th& jaZe,aAswi& at 

TTlv. jo&bfavhs ^kso/yivicyyi '& boonfea/naf 

at cLLrun&v aru &we&oLcvu, 

Jbmewvk&v ttlth, at &&v-&<yv a' &la&k. 

2V-S0 $iyiz tftv&et. 

If it is accepted : — 

77li>. jofrt/fesAs ^kasovybcm 

a&&e/JaXs& with jbi&a,&uA,& th& invitation, aj< 

71%. OsWscL TTlub. (Qtuouiltsfr 1/fr. Rixwwu 

tav dwmeA, an S^w^clasu, 
Jb-&&&wU>~&v tilth, at &&vesvi a ; ® 



LETTER WRITING. 219 

If it is declined : — 

71%. Jo&vftA ^faa/yincm 

v&omtb tAat a> fov&v-uyud; &naaa&wi&nt 

71%. obvul TTluis. &kas r il&& 7J}~. ffivownffr 

vmMaZvo-'n, to- gUsyim,£As at Qs&v-&n> a' ' (eto&k/; 
&w£&c£aAf eA^&nvyuf, £&&&i / n/>~&v 



For afternoon receptions of a less formal character, 
the invitations are generally by visiting card, with the 
date and hour added in the corner. 

ADDRESSING THE ENVELOPE. 

Care should be taken to have the address plainly 
written, and symmetrically arranged on the envelope so 
as to be attractive to the eye. The name should never 
be higher than the middle of the envelope, and each 
successive line should begin to the right of the line 
above. Never use more than three lines unless it is 
absolutely necessary. 

Special directions, like the number of a post office 
box, or the name of a hotel or country-seat, may be 
placed in the lower left-hand corner. 

The stamp should always be placed squarely in the 
upper right-hand corner. 

The following forms will show the positions of the 
different parts of the address under various circum- 
stances : — 



220 LANGUAGE AMD GRAMMAB. 











) Stamp i 


mv. 


/lf&rL6Lvv&fc& CL, 


ftaUett, 








123 GUveAZwuZ vftv&et, 










@A&{ms&o>, 


TyidQyQy. 















Stamp I 






Mum, Tflavy 


I8M ^awtcL 












Jjunn 




£fh& 


JP^&Qs&ott 




TyiciQyQyC^fBAu^eZtQy 



The address may be punctuated or not, at the taste of 
the writer, but one style or the other should be adhered 
to ; either omit all marks or punctuate accurately. 

Where the name of the state is compound, always 
treat both parts alike. If one is abbreviated, the other 
should be. Write either New York or N. F., but not 
N. York. 

Where the correspondent has an honorary title, it 
should be included in the address. 



APPENDIX. 



EXPLANATION OF THE DIAGRAM. 

In the diagrammed analysis, a single bracket, [ , is used 
to enclose subject and predicate; and two, [ ], for words 
supplied. A bar, | , separates subordinate elements from 
the words they modify. A brace, \, unites two or more 
subordinate elements that, with respect to each other, are 
co-ordinate. The object complement is preceded by || ; the 
attribute complement, whether noun or adjective, by \. 
An explanatory noun, with the words belonging to it, is 
enclosed by \ \ . Compound elements are united by the 

conjunction line, • , and the conjunctions, expressed 

or understood, written upon it. Eelative pronouns and 
conjunctive adverbs must show their double office, and are 
consequently underscored by this conjunctive line. Curves, 
or marks of parenthesis, ( ), enclose independent elements. 

An underscore and a curve, ^, are used to connect a 

modifier with its base, when the latter consists of several 
elements combined. 

In the diagram, the order of words should be kept when 

possible, and the capitalization must remain undisturbed. 

From the diagram alone, one should be able to perfectly 

reconstruct the sentence. 

221 



INDEX. 



Abbreviation, 63. 
Addressing the envelope, 219. 
Adjective, 30. 

comparison, 105. 

demonstrative, 98. 

descriptive, 97. 

interrogative, 98. 

numeral, 97. 

parsing of, 108. 

proper, 104. 

prefixes, 33. 

suffixes, 33. 

synopsis of, 109. 

use of, 108. 
Adjunct, 39. 
Adverb, 36, 146. 

comparison, 151. 

conjunctive, 148. 

interrogative, 149. 

parsing of, 155. 

synopsis of, 156. 
Agreement, rules of, 184. 
Analysis, 21. 

order of, 176. 
Antecedent, 80. 
Apostrophe, 204. 
Article, 100. 

definite, 100. 

indefinite, 100. 
Attribute complement, 113. 
Auxiliary verbs, 124. 

Be, 130, 136. 

Blank, 10. 

Brackets, 18, 203. 

Business correspondence, 207. 

Capitalization, 13, 64, 195, 
Capitals, 112. 
Clause, 52. 
Colon, 199. 
Comma, 200. 
Complement, 113. 
Compound predicate, 23. 
Compound subject, 23. 
Conjugation, 133. 
Conjunction, 42, 161. 



Conjunction, parsing of, 164. 

synopsis of, 164. 
Connectives, 167. 
Co-ordinate conjunction, 161. 
Copula, 114. 
Correspondence, 207. 
Curves, 202. 

Dash, 9, 202. 
Declension, 73. 
Diagramming, 21. 

Envelope, address of, 219. 
Equivalents, 51. 
Exclamation point, 198. 
Explanatory modifier, 72, 101. 

Friendly correspondence, 211. 
Future tense, 123. 

Government, 184. 

Hyphen, 204. 

7,30. 

Independent elements, 166. 
Infinitives, 116, 142. 
Interjection, 45. 
Interrogation point, 198. 
Italics, 11. 

Letter writing, 206. 
Logical subject, 166. 

Naked predicate. 165. 
Naked subject, ±65. 
Noun, 28. 
abstract, 61. 
collective, 60. 
common, 60. 
declension of, 73. 
material, 61. 
modification of, 65. 
case, 71. 
gender, 67. 
number, 68. 
person, 66. 

223 



224 



INDEX. 



Noun, parsing of, 75. 
participial, 116. 
proper, 60. 
verbal, 61. 
synopsis of, 76. 
uses of, 74. 

Object, 39. 

Object complement, 113. 

Order of analysis, 176. 

Participle, 116, 142. 
Parts of speech, 46. 
Period, 12, 198. 
Phrase, 5. 

Plural, rules for, 69. 
Possessive case, 72. 
Predicate, 16. 

compound, 23. 

naked, 165. 
Prefixes, 33. 
Preposition, 39, 157. 

parsing of, 159. 

synopsis of, 160. 
Principal parts, 123. 
Pronoun, 29. 

declension of, 91. 

demonstrative, 87. 

indefinite, 88. 

interrogative, 86. 

parsing of, 95. 

personal, 78. 

reflexive, 81. 

relative, 81. 

synopsis of, 96. 

use of, 96. 
Punctuation, 13, 64, 197. 

Quotation marks, 203. 

Reflexives, 81. 

Rules of agreement, 184. 

Rules of order, 181. 

Semi-colon, 199. 
Sentence, 9. 
analysis of, 176. 



Sentence, complex, 54. 

compound, 54. 

declarative, 12. 

explanatory, 12. 

elements, 165. 
independent, 166. 
principal, 165. 
subordinate, 166. 

imperative, 12. 

interrogative, 12. 

simple, 53. 
Series, 23. 

Social correspondence, 215. 
Speech, parts of, 46. 
Subject, 16. 

compound, 23. 

naked, 165. 
Subjunctive mood, 124. 
Subordinate conjunction, 161. 
Suffixes, 33. 
Syntax, 181. 

Underscore, 204. 

Verb, 34. 
auxiliary, 124. 
complete, 112. 
conjugation, 133. 
forms with do, 138. 
incomplete, 113. 
irregular, 123. 
intransitive, 110. 
modifications of, 120. 

mode, 120. 

number, 126. 

person, 128. 

tense, 121. 

voice, 140. 
parsing of, 143. 
progressive forms, 139. 
regular, 123. 
synopsis of, 145. 
transitive, 110. 
Verbals, 115. 
Voice, 140. 

Words, variously used, 48. 



